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Outline of Universal History

G >> George Park Fisher >> Outline of Universal History




ARISTIDES AND THEMISTOCLES.--_Miltiades_ subsequently failed in
an attempt against _Paros_, one of the Ægean islands which had
submitted to the Persians, and which he sought to conquer. Accused of
making false promises to the people, he was fined fifty talents, but
died before the sum could be collected (489 B.C.). His son
_Cimon_ paid the fine. The two leading men in Athens at that time
were _Aristides_ and _Themistocles_. The former, from his
uprightness, was styled "the just." _Themistocles_ was a man of
genius, of an ambitious spirit, whom the laurels of _Miltiades_
robbed of sleep. Devoted to Athens, he was not scrupulous in regard to
the means of advancing her prosperity and glory. Duplicity and
intrigue were weapons in the use of which he was not less willing than
expert. He aspired to make Athens a great naval and maritime
power. _Aristides_ believed that the strength of the country lay
in the landholders and in the land forces. In the attainment of public
ends, he would not deviate from a straightforward course. Themistocles
was by far the more captivating of the two men; and, in 484 B.C.,
Aristides was ostracised. Themistocles was thus left free to build up
a powerful fleet.

THE WAR WITH XERXES: THERMOPYLÆ.--_Darius_ died while he was
preparing another grand expedition against Greece. He left his
successor, _Xerxes_ (485 B.C.), to complete and carry out the
plan. This proud monarch drew together from his immense dominions an
army which tradition, as given in Herodotus, made to number one
million seven hundred thousand men and a fleet of twelve hundred large
vessels. He had for a counselor, _Demaratus_, a fugitive king of
Sparta. The vast array of troops was assembled near _Sardes_, and
thence marched to the _Hellespont_. Seven days were spent by this
mighty gathering of nations in passing over the two bridges of
boats. They marched through Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly, the
Persian fleet proceeding along the coast. _Bæotia_ and several
smaller states yielded without resistance. The most of the other Greek
states, inspired by Themistocles, joined hands for defense under the
hegemony of Sparta. In July, 480, the Persian army arrived at the
narrow pass of _Thermopylæ_. There the Lacedæemonian king,
_Leonidas_, with his three hundred Spartans and some thousands of
allies, had taken his stand, to stem the vast current that was pouring
down to overwhelm Greece. To the Persian command to give up their
weapons, the "laconic" reply was given by Leonidas, "Come and get
them." For several days the band of Spartans defended the pass,
beating back the Persians, thousands of whom were slain, and
repulsing, even, the ten thousand "immortals," who constituted the
royal guard. At length a treacherous Greek showed the enemy a by-path,
which enabled them to fall on the rear of the gallant troops, every
one of whom fell, bravely fighting, with his weapon in his hand. A
lion made of iron was afterwards placed on the spot where the heroes
had died, "obedient to the commands of Sparta." The Persians pushed
forward to _Athens_, and burned the city. All citizens capable of
bearing arms were on board the fleet: the women, children, and movable
property had been conveyed to _Salamis_, _Ægina_, and
_Træzcne_.

SALAMIS.--The Greek fleet, under the Spartan _Eurybiades_, had
come from victory at Artemisium into the Gulf of Salamis. By means of
a device of Themistocles, the Spartans were prevented from withdrawing
their forces to the Corinthian isthmus, where they had built a wall
for their own protection; and a sea-fight was brought on, of which the
Athenians in Salamis, and Xerxes himself from a hill on the mainland,
were anxious spectators (Sept. 27, 480). Once more the cause of
civilization was staked on the issue of a conflict. The Greeks were
completely victorious, and their land was saved. Xerxes hastily
marched towards home, thousands of his army perishing on the way from
hunger, cold, and fatigue. The _Spartiatæ_ gave to
_Eurybiades_ the prize of valor, to _Themistocles_ an olive
crown for his wisdom and sagacity.

PLATÆA: MYCALE: EURYMEDON.--Xerxes left three hundred thousand men
behind in Thessaly, under the command of _Mardonius_. In the
spring, incensed at the proud rejection of his overtures, he marched
to Athens, whose people again took refuge in Salamis. In the great
battle of _Platæa_ (479 B.C.), the Greeks, led by the Spartan
_Pausanias_, inflicted on him such a defeat that only forty
thousand Persians escaped to the Hellespont. On the same day at
_Mycale_, the Persian fleet was vanquished in a sharp encounter
where a Spartan commanded, but where the Athenians were the most
efficient combatants. Sestos, Lemnos, Imbros, and Byzantium were taken
by the Greeks; and a double victory of _Cimon_, the son of
Miltiades, at the Pamphylian river, _Eurymedon_, over both the
land and naval forces of the Persians, brought the war to an end (467
B.C.).




CHAPTER II. THE ASCENDENCY OF ATHENS.


PAUSANIAS AND THEMISTOCLES.--Both of the generals by whom the Persians
had been overcome, fell under the displeasure of the states to which
they belonged. _Pausanias_ was so far misled by ambition as to
engage in a negotiation with the Persians for the elevation of
himself, by their aid, to supreme power in Greece. His plots were
discovered, and he was compelled by his countrymen to starve to death
in a temple to which he had fled for refuge. _Themistocles_
caused Athens to be surrounded by a wall, and built long walls from
the city to the _Piræus_. This provoked the hatred of the
Spartans, so jealous were they of the power of Athens. In conjunction
with his Athenian enemies, they contrived to procure his banishment
for ten years (471 B.C.). Themistocles fled to Persia, where he was
treated with honor and favor. _Artaxerxes I._ gave him a princely
domain in Asia Minor where he died (458 B.C.). Grave as his faults
were, Themistocles was the founder of the historical greatness of
Athens.

CONFEDERACY OF DELOS.--It was through the influence of
_Aristides_ that the confederacy of Delos was formed, in which
the Grecian islands and seaports combined with Athens, and under her
leadership, for the further prosecution of the war. By this means, the
Athenians, already so efficient on the sea, were enabled still more to
strengthen their fleet, and gradually to bring the Ægean islands and
smaller maritime states under their sway. _Cimon_ rendered great
service as a naval commander. He drove the Persians out of Thrace
altogether, and he conquered _Scyros_. He wrested the Chersonese
from the Persians, and freed the Greek cities on the coast. In the
single battle on the _Eurymedon_, he sunk or captured two hundred
galleys (467 B.C.).

TO THE PEACE OF PERICLES.--Under the leadership of such men, the
Athenian Republic became more and more powerful. _Ægina_, a rich
and prosperous island, was conquered, and planted with Athenian
colonists. _Megara_ became a dependency of Athens. Sparta, partly
in consequence of a struggle with Argos, a state friendly to the
Persians, and still more on account of an earthquake which laid the
most of the city in ruins (465 B.C.), was so crippled as not to be
able to check the progress of the rival community. She was even
obliged to invoke Athenian help against the revolting Messenians and
helots; but after the troops of Athens had joined them, the Spartans,
jealous and afraid of what they might do, sent them back. This
indignity led to the banishment of _Cimon_, who had favored the
sending of the force, and to the granting of aid to the Spartans. The
Spartans now did their best to reduce the strength and dominion of
Athens by raising _Thebes_ to the hegemony over the Boeotian
cities. Everywhere, in all the conflicts, Sparta was the champion of
the _aristocratic_ form of government; Athens, of the
_democratic_. The Athenians were defeated at _Tanagra_ (457
B.C.). This induced them to recall _Cimon_, a great general and a
worthy citizen. Two months after her victory, Sparta was defeated by
_Myronides_; and the Athenians became masters of Phocis, Locris,
and Boeotia. Cimon brought about a truce between Athens and Sparta. He
left his country on a high pinnacle of power and dominion. Nearly all
the allies in the confederacy of Delos had fallen into the position of
tributaries, whose heavy contributions were carried no longer to the
sanctuary at Delos, but to the temple of Athena on the Acropolis, and
who had no power to decide on questions of peace and war. The nobles,
however, who were driven into exile in all conquered places, were the
mortal enemies of Athens. At _Coronea_ (447 B.C.), the Boeotian
refugees and aristocrats were so strong that the Athenians experienced
a disastrous defeat. The peril of the situation moved _Pericles_
to secure, by astute management, a peace with Sparta, the terms of
which were that each of the two cities was to maintain its hegemony
within its own circle, and the several states were to attach
themselves at their option to either confederacy. In market and
harbor, there was to be a free intercourse of trade (445 B.C.).

THE AGE OF PERICLES.--Pericles belonged to one of the principal
Athenian families, but was democratic in his politics, and made
himself a popular leader. By his influence the _Areopagus_ was
stripped of high prerogatives that had belonged to it. He caused it to
be enacted, that every citizen, when engaged in the public service,
even in attending the popular assembly, should receive a stipend. For
fifteen years, as the first citizen of Athens, with none of the
trappings of power, he virtually ruled the commonwealth. One of his
works was the building the third of the _long walls_ which
protected the _Piræus_ and the neighboring ports on the land
side, and connected them with Athens. His patriotism was as sincere as
his talents were versatile and brilliant. He was at once a soldier, an
orator, a statesman of consummate ability, and a man imbued with the
best appreciation of letters and of art. In his hospitable house,
where _Aspasia_ from Miletus, a beautiful and cultured woman, was
his companion, men of genius found a welcome. Under him, Athens became
the metropolis of literature, philosophy, and art for the whole
Hellenic race, and, considering the influence of Athens, it might
almost be said for mankind in all ages. Magnificent buildings--of
which the _Parthenon_, the temple of Athena that crowned the
Acropolis, whose ruins are the model of architectural perfection, was
one--gave to the city an unrivaled beauty. _Sculpture_ vied with
architecture in this work of adornment. _Phidias_, who wrought
the frieze of the Parthenon, counted among his wonderful creations the
colossal sitting statue of Zeus at Olympia. It was the blossoming
season of the Greek intellect, as regards _literature_ and the
_fine arts_. The _drama_ reached its perfection in the
masterly tragedies of _Aeschylus, Sophocles,_ and
_Euripides_, and in the comedies of _Aristophanes_. The
Athenian community, through its political eminence, its intellectual
character, so original and diversified, its culture,--such that almost
every citizen was qualified for civil office,--has no parallel in
history. It is the elevation, not of a select class of the citizens,
but of the whole society, which gives to Athens its unique
distinction. Public spirit and enterprise, which made her navy
dominant in the Aegean and over the sea-coast of Asia Minor, went hand
in hand with delight in eloquence and in the creations of
genius. There was not, however, as some have affirmed, in the
prevalent absorption in the affairs of state, a neglect of the labors
of agriculture and of mechanical industry.

THE ACROPOLIS--It was customary for a Greek town to be built about an
acropolis,--an eminence by which it was commanded, and on which stood
the citadel. On the acropolis at Athens were the buildings and statues
in which the glory of Athenian art was impressively displayed. There
were three edifices which excelled all the rest in splendor. On the
south side of the elevated area was the _Parthenon_, built of
Pentelic marble, two hundred and twenty-eight feet in length, and of
faultless proportions. On the northern edge was the _Erechtheum_,
an Ionic temple of extraordinary beauty. The _Propylcea_,
approached by sixty marble steps, was a noble gateway: it stood on the
western end of the acropolis, which it magnificently adorned.

ATHENS--No other description of Athens, in the age of Pericles, equals
his own in the _Funeral Oration_ (431 B.C.), as given by
Thucydides, for those who had fallen in the war. It shows how an
Athenian looked upon his city.

"It is true that we are called a democracy; for the administration
is in the hands of the many, and not of the few. But while the law
secures equal justice to all alike in their private disputes, the
claim of excellence is also recognized; and when a citizen is in any
way distinguished, he is preferred to the public service, not as a
matter of privilege, but as the reward of merit. Neither is poverty
a bar; but a man may benefit his country, whatever be the obscurity
of his condition. There is no exclusiveness in our public life; and
in our private intercourse we are not suspicious of one another, nor
angry with our neighbor if he does what he likes: we do not put on
sour looks at him, which, though harmless, are not pleasant. While
we are thus unconstrained in our private intercourse, a spirit of
reverence pervades our public acts: we are prevented from doing
wrong by respect for authority and the laws, having an especial
regard to those which are ordained for the protection of the
injured, as well as to those unwritten laws which bring upon the
transgressor of them the reprobation of the general sentiment.

"And we have not forgotten to provide for our weary spirits many
relaxations from toil. We have regular games and sacrifices
throughout the year. At home the style of our life is refined, and
the delight which we daily feel in all these things helps to banish
melancholy. Because of the greatness of our city, the fruits of the
whole earth flow in upon us; so that we enjoy the goods of other
countries as freely as of our own.

"Then, again, our military training is in many respects superior to
that of our adversaries. Our city is thrown open to the world; and
we never expel a foreigner, or prevent him from seeing or learning
any thing of which the secret, if revealed to an enemy, might profit
him. We rely not upon management or trickery, but upon our own
hearts and hands. And in the matter of education, whereas they from
early youth are always undergoing laborious exercises which are to
make them brave, we live at ease, and yet are equally ready to face
the perils which they face. And here is the proof,--the
Lacedaemonians come into Attica, not by themselves, but with their
whole confederacy following; we go alone into a neighbor's country;
and, although our opponents are fighting for their homes, and we are
on a foreign soil, we have seldom any difficulty in overcoming
them. Our enemies have never yet felt our united strength. The care
of a navy divides our attention, and on land we are obliged to send
our own citizens everywhere. But they, if they meet and defeat a
part of our army, are as proud as if they had routed us all; and,
when defeated, they pretend to have been vanquished by us all.

"If, then, we prefer to meet danger with a light heart, but without
laborious training, and with a courage which is gained by habit, and
not enforced by law, are we not greatly the gainers? since we do not
anticipate the pain, although, when the hour comes, we can be as
brave as those who never allow themselves to rest. And thus, too,
our city is equally admirable in peace and war; for we are lovers of
the beautiful, yet simple in our tastes, and we cultivate the mind
without loss of manliness. Wealth we employ, not for talk and
ostentation, but when there is real use for it. To avow poverty with
us is no disgrace: the true disgrace is in doing nothing to avoid
it. An Athenian citizen does not neglect the State because he takes
care of his own household, and even those of us who are engaged in
business have a very fair idea of politics. We alone regard a man
who takes no interest in public affairs, not as harmless, but as a
useless character; and, if few of us are originators, we are all
sound judges of policy. The great impediment to action is, in our
opinion, not discussion, but the want of that knowledge which is
gained by discussion preparatory to action. For we have a peculiar
power of thinking before we act, and of acting too; whereas other
men are courageous from ignorance, but hesitate upon reflection. And
they are surely to be esteemed the bravest spirits who, having the
clearest sense both of the pains and pleasures of life, do not on
that account shrink from danger. In doing good, again, we are unlike
others: we make our friends by conferring, not by receiving,
favors. Now, he who confers a favor is the firmer friend, because he
would fain by kindness keep alive the memory of an obligation; but
the recipient is colder in his feelings, because he knows that in
requiting another's generosity he will not be winning gratitude, but
only paying a debt. We alone do good to our neighbors, not upon a
calculation of interest, but in the confidence of freedom, and in a
frank and fearless spirit. To sum up, I say that Athens is the
school of Hellas, and that the individual Athenian in his own person
seems to have the power of adapting himself to the most varied forms
of action with the utmost versatility and grace. This is no passing
and idle word, but truth and fact; and the assertion is verified by
the position to which these qualities have raised the State. For in
the hour of trial Athens alone among her contemporaries is superior
to the report of her. No enemy who comes against her is indignant at
the reverses which he sustains at the hands of such a city: no
subject complains that his masters are unworthy of him. And we shall
assuredly not be without witnesses; there are mighty monuments of
our power, which will make us the wonder of this and of succeeding
ages. We shall not need the praises of Homer or of any other
panegyrist, whose poetry may please for the moment, although his
representation of the facts will not bear the light of day; for we
have compelled every land and every sea to open a path for our
valor, and have everywhere planted eternal memorials of our
friendship and of our enmity. Such is the city for whose sake these
men nobly fought and died: they could not bear the thought that she
might be taken from them, and every one of us who survive should
gladly toil on her behalf."

RELIGION.--We find in _Sophocles_ a much purer tone of moral and
religious feeling than in _Homer_. Greek thought upon divine
things is expanded and purified, (i) _Higher Conception of the
Gods_. The gods are still conceived of as in bodily form. Their
images abide in their temples. Take them away, and the god leaves his
abode. The divinities need not be present, as in Homer, in order to
exert their power. The monotheistic tendency is manifest. The "gods"
are referred to as if a single agency were in the writer's mind. The
regal sway of Zeus is emphasized. He is less subject to Fate. (2)
_Divine Government_. The gods, especially _Zeus_, are the
fountain of law. The righteousness of the divine government is
especially evinced in the punishment of evil-doers. Transgressors
generally, and not those of the worst class alone, as in Homer, are
punished in _Hades_. Pride and insolence call down the vengeance
of the gods. Unsleeping justice pursues the criminal. The theory of
_Nemesis_, which pursues the prosperous, if they are proud, to
their hurt and ruin, is held. (3) _Number of the Gods_. The
number of divinities is multiplied as time advances. The worship of
the heroes, children of the gods or goddesses, grows in
importance. (4) _Revelation_. There was direct revelation, it was
believed, by prophecy, uttered now in an ecstatic, and now in a
tranquil, mood. _Oracles_ acquired a new and vast importance. (5)
_Rites_. Visible objects of devotion were multiplied; religious
ceremonies ramified in all directions; sacred processions, festivals,
amusements involving religious observances, abounded. (6)
_Morality_. Moral excellence centered in moderation and
self-government, through which the individual keeps both his own
nature as to its parts, and himself in relation to others, within due
limits. This spirit includes temperance and justice. The stern spirit
of law prevails: the requital of injuries is approved. Yet feelings of
compassion find a beautiful expression. At Athens, there was public
provision for orphans and for the help of the poor. (7) _Domestic
Life: Patriotism_. The wife lived in retirement, and in submission
to her husband. When he entertained friends at his table, she was
absent; yet domestic affection was evidently strong. Every other duty
merged in patriotism. The Greek placed a great gulf between himself
and the "barbarian." He was conscious of higher intellectual gifts,
superior culture, better customs. (8) _Sin. The Future
Life_. There was a deeper sense of sin than in the Homeric
era. There was a pathetic consciousness of the trouble and sorrow that
beset human life. _Hades_ was regarded as a scene of trial and
judgment, and of rewards as well as sufferings. The soul was not so
closely identified with the body. Death was an object of gloomy
anticipation. _Pericles_, in his funeral oration for the fallen
patriots, is silent as to a future life. In the tragic poets, it is
only the select few whose lot is blessed. As concerns the mass of the
people, it is probable that the Homeric notions respecting the state
of the dead still prevailed. Generally speaking, we are not warranted
in ascribing the more elevated views of religion entertained by the
best minds to the mass of the people.

THE TRAGIC DRAMA.--The songs which were sung in the worship of
Dionysus (dithyrambs) were accompanied with dance and pantomime. The
custom followed of mingling speeches and dramatic action with these
lyrics. The change is ascribed to _Thespis_ (about 536 B.C.), a
little later than Solon. Thespis is said to have brought in the stage
for the performers. The Greek theaters were large, open to the sky,
and sometimes on sites which commanded fine views. There was the
amphitheater, with graded seats for spectators, and the stage,
together with the orchestra where the choir in song or musical
recitation reflected the sympathies and views of the spectators of the
play. At first there was only one actor, and, of course, a
monologue. _Aeschylus_ is said to have brought in a second actor,
and _Sophocles_ a third. These, with _Euripides_, were the
three great dramatists of Greece. The choral song, which had been the
chief thing, was made secondary to the dialogue. Aeschylus, at the age
of forty-five, fought in the battle of Salamis; Sophocles, then
fifteen years old, took part in the festival in honor of the victory;
and Euripides was born, it was supposed, on the very day of the
battle. These three brought the tragic drama to perfection. Of the
productions of Aeschylus (525-456 B.C.), seven remain. They are
inspired with the heroic and elevated mood which was engendered by the
great struggle against the Persians. Of the numerous plays of
Sophocles (495-406 B.C.), the number of those extant is also
seven. They so combine vigor and force with refinement of thought and
style that they are surpassed, if indeed they are equaled, by the
literary products of no age or country. In Euripides (480-406 B.C.),
while there is an insight into the workings of the heart, and the
antique nobleness of sentiment, there is less simplicity, and there is
manifest the less earnest and believing tone of the later day. In the
dramas, the "unities" of time, place, and action are observed. The
acts together seldom stretch over a single day.

COMEDY--Comedy, in which _Aristophanes_ (452-388 B.C.), a great
poet as well as a great wit, was the principal author, dealt largely
in satire. Conspicuous men, and those active in public affairs, were
represented on the stage in satirical pieces, so that they were at
once identified. The spirit of the "old comedy" was patriotic,
although it might be unjust, as in the case of Socrates, who was a
target for the wit of Aristophanes. The "middle comedy" was nothing
really distinct from the "new comedy." The "new comedy," in which
Menander (342-290 B.C.) was an eminent author, ceased to present
actual persons, and dealt with imaginary characters alone. Among the
Greeks in Lower Italy and Sicily, mimes were much in vogue.

GREEK ART: ARCHITECTURE--The Greeks more and more broke away in a free
and joyous spirit from the stiff and conventional styles of Egyptian
and Oriental art. In the room of the somber, massive edifices of
Egypt, they combined symmetry and beauty with grandeur in the temples
which they erected. The temples were originally colored within and
without. Three styles were developed,--the _Doric_, the
_Ionic_, and the _Corinthian_. In the _Doric_, the
column and entablature have the most solid and simple form. The column
has no other base than the common platform on which the pillars rest,
and the capital that surmounts it is a plain slab.

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