A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P R S T U V W X Z

Outline of Universal History

G >> George Park Fisher >> Outline of Universal History




CAESAR IN GAUL.--The campaigns of _Caesar_ in Gaul covered a
period of eight years. An admirable narrative of them is presented by
himself in his _Commentaries_.

THE GAULS.--The Gauls were _Celts_. The Celts were spread over
the most of Gaul, over Britain and the north of Italy. In
_Gaul_, there were three general divisions of people, each
subdivided into tribes. These were the _Belgae_, the
_Galli_, and the _Aquitani_, the last of whom, however,
were not Celts, but, like the _Iberians_ in Spain, belonged to
a _pre-Celtic_ race. The _Helvetii_ and _Vindelici_
were in Switzerland. The Celts of _Gaul_ had attained to a
considerable degree of civilization. Their gods were the various
objects of nature personified. Their divinities are described by
Caesar as corresponding in their functions to the gods of
Rome. Their priests were the _Druids_, a close corporation, but
not hereditary. They not only conducted worship: they were the
lawgivers, judges, and physicians of the people. They possessed a
mysterious doctrine, which they taught to the initiated. They held a
great yearly assembly for the trial of causes. The _Bards_
stood in connection with the Druidical order. In worship, human
sacrifices were offered in large numbers, the victims being
prisoners, slaves, criminals, etc. There were temples, but thick
groves were the favorite seats of worship. _Caesar_ says that
the Gauls were strongly addicted to religious observances. In their
character they are described as brave and impetuous in an onset, but
as lacking persistency.

The Celts in _Britain_ were less civilized than their kinsfolk
across the channel. But in their customs and religious beliefs and
usages, they were similar to them. They probably came over from
Gaul.

CONQUEST OF GAUL.--The first victory of Caesar was in conflict with
the Helvetii, who had invaded Gaul, and whom he drove back to their
homes in the Alps. The Gallic tribes applied to him for help against
the _Germans_, who had been led over the Rhine by
_Ariovistus_, chief of the _Suevi_. Him _Caesar_ forced
to return to the other side of the river. The Gallic tribes, fearing
the power of Caesar, stirred up the _Belgae_, the most warlike of
all the Gauls. These Csesar subdued, and also, with less difficulty,
conquered the other nations of Gaul. _Twice_, in conflict with
the Germans, he crossed the Rhine near _Bonn_ and
_Andernach_ (55 and 53 B.C.). _Twice_, also (55 and 54
B.C.), he landed in _Britain_. On the second expedition he
crossed the _Thames_. In 52 there was a general insurrection of
the Gauls under _Vercingetorix_, a brave chieftain, to conquer
whom required all of Caesar's strength and skill. The result of eight
years of hard and successful warfare was the subjugation of all Gaul
from the Rhine to the Pyrenees. The _Celts_ were subdued, and
steps taken which resulted in their civilization. A barrier was placed
in the way of the advance of the _Germans_, which availed for
this end during several centuries. By his successes in Gaul, Csesar
acquired a fame as a general, which partly eclipsed the glory
previously gained by _Pompeius_ in the East. He became, also, the
leader of veteran legions who were devoted to his interests.




CHAPTER III. POMPEIUS AND CAESAR: THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE.


THE CIVIL WAR.--The rupture between _Pompeius_ and _Caesar_
brought on another civil war, and subverted the Roman republic. They
were virtually regents. The triumvirs had arranged with one another
for the partition of power. The death of _Crassus_ took away a
link of connection which had united the two survivors. The death of
_Julia_, the beautiful daughter of _Caesar_, in 54 B.C., had
previously dissolved another tie. _Pompeius_ contrived to remain
in Rome, and to govern Spain by legates. Each of the two rivals had
his active and valiant partisans in the city. The spoils of Gaul were
sent to be expended in the erection of costly buildings, and in
providing entertainments for the populace. To _Pompey_, in turn,
Rome owed the construction of the first stone theater, which was
dedicated with unprecedented show and splendor. Bloody conflicts
between armed bands of adherents of the two leaders were of daily
occurrence. _Clodius_, an adherent of Caesar and a reckless
partisan, was slain by _Milo_, in a conflict on the Appian
Way. The Senate and the republicans, of whom _Cato_ was the
chief, in order to curb the populace, and out of enmity to Caesar,
allied themselves with _Pompeius_. It was determined to prevent
him from standing as a candidate for the consulship, unless he should
lay down his command, and come to Rome. He offered to resign his
military power if _Pompeius_ would do the same. This was
refused. Finally he was directed to give up his command in Gaul before
the expiration of the time which had been set for the termination of
it. This order, if carried into effect, would have reduced him to the
rank of a private citizen, and have left him at the mercy of his
enemies. The tribunes, including his devoted supporter, _Marcus
Antonius_, in vain interposed the veto, and fled from the
city. _Caesar_ determined to disobey the order of the Senate. His
legions--two had been withdrawn on the false pretext of needing them
for the Parthian war--clung to him, with the exception of one able
officer, _T. Labienus_. _Caesar_ acted with great
promptitude. He crossed the _Rubicon_, the boundary of the Gallic
Cisalpine province, before _Pompeius_--who had declared, that
with a stamp of his foot he could call up armed men from the
ground--had made adequate preparations to meet him. The strength of
_Pompeius_ was mainly in the _East_, the scene of his former
glory; and he was, perhaps, not unwilling to retire to that region,
taking with him the throng of aristocratic leaders, who fled
precipitately on learning of the approach of
_Caesar_. _Pompeius_ sailed from Brundisium to
_Epirus_. _Cicero_, who had ardently desired an
accommodation between the rivals, was in an agony of doubt as to what
course it was right and best for him to take, since he saw reason to
dread the triumph of either side. Reluctantly he decided to cast in
his lot with the Senate and its newly gained champion.

PHARSALUS: THAPSUS: MUNDA.--Caesar gained the advantage of securing
the state treasure which _Pompeius_ had unaccountably left behind
him, and was able to establish his power in _Italy_. Before
pursuing Pompeius, he marched through _Gaul_ into _Spain_
(49 B.C.), conquered the Pompeian forces at _Ilerda_, and secured
his hold upon that country. He then crossed the Adriatic, He
encountered Pompeius, who could not manage his imprudent officers, on
the plain of _Pharsalus_ (48 B.C.), where the senatorial army was
completely overthrown. _Pompeius_ sailed for Egypt; but, just as
he was landing, he was treacherously assassinated. His head was sent
to _Caesar_, who wept at the spectacle, and punished the
murderers. _Caesar_ gained friends everywhere by the exercise of
a judicious clemency, which accorded with his natural disposition. He
next went to _Egypt_. There he was met by _Cleopatra_, whose
dazzling beauty captivated him. She reigned in conjunction with her
younger brother, who, according to the Egyptian usage, was nominally
her husband. The Egyptians were roused against Caesar, and, on one
occasion, he saved his life by swimming; but he finally defeated and
destroyed the Egyptian army. At _Zela_, in _Pontus_, he met
and vanquished _Pharnaces_, the revolted son of
_Mithridates_, and sent the laconic message, "Veni, vidi, vici"
(I came, I saw, I conquered). Early in 46 he landed in _Africa_,
and, at _Thapsus_, annihilated the republican forces in that
region. A most powerful combination was made against him in
_Spain_, including some of his old officers and legionaries, and
the two sons of _Pompeius_. But in the hard-fought battle at
_Munda_ (March, 45 B.C.), when Caesar was himself in great
personal danger, he was, as usual, triumphant.

CAESAR AS A CIVILIAN.--Marvelous as the career of Caesar as a general
was, his merit as a civilian outstrips even his distinction as a
soldier. He saw that the world could no longer be governed by the
Roman rabble, and that monarchy was the only alternative. He ruled
under the forms of the old constitution, taking the post of dictator
and censor for life, and absorbing in himself the other principal
republican offices. The whole tendency of his measures, which were
mostly of a very wholesome character, was not only to remedy abuses of
administration, but to found a system of orderly administration in
which Rome should be not the sole _mistress_, but simply the
_capital_, of the world-wide community which had been subjected
to her authority.

THE GOVERNMENT OF CAESAR.--Caesar made the _Senate_ an advisory
body. He increased the number of senators, bringing in provincials as
well as Roman citizens. He gave full citizenship to all the
_Transpadane Gauls_, and to numerous communities in
_Transalpine Gaul_, in _Spain_, and elsewhere. He
established a wide-spread colonization, thus planting his veterans in
different places abroad, and lessening the number of proletarians in
Italy. He rebuilt _Carthage_ and _Corinth_. He re-organized
the army, and the civil administration in the provinces. In the space
of five years, while he was busy in important wars, he originated
numerous governmental measures of the utmost value.

THE MOTIVES OF CAESAR.--The designs of Caesar and of his party are to
be distinguished from what they actually accomplished. Caesar was not
impelled by a desire to improve the government of the provinces, in
taking up arms against the Senate. Nor did he owe his success to the
support of provincials; although, in common with the rest of the
democratic party at Rome, he was glad to have them for allies. The
custom had grown up of virtually giving to eminent generals, absolute
power for extended intervals. This was done, for example, in the case
of _Marius_, on the occasion of the invasion of the
_Cimbrians_ and _Teutones_. In such exigencies, it was found
necessary to create what was equivalent to a military
dictatorship. The idea of military rule became familiar. The
revolution made by Caesar was achieved by military organization, and
was a measure of personal self-defense on his part. Being raised to
the supreme power, he sought to rule according to the wise and liberal
ideas which were suggested by the actual condition of the world, and
the undesirableness of a continued domination of a single city, with
such a populace as that of Rome. Before he could carry out his large
schemes, he was cut down.

ASSASSINATION OF CAESAR.--Caesar was tired of staying in Rome, and was
proposing to undertake an expedition against the Parthians. Neither
his clemency nor the necessity and the merits of the government
sustained by him, availed to shield him against the machinations of
enemies. The aristocratic party detested his policy. He was suspected
of aiming at the title, as well as the power, of a king. A conspiracy
made up of numerous senators who secretly hated him, of other
individuals influenced by personal spite, and of republican
visionaries like _Cassius_ and _Junius Brutus_, who gloried
in what they considered tyrannicide, assaulted him on the ides of
March (March 15, 44 B.C.) in the hall of _Pompeius_, whither he
had come to a session of the Senate. He received twenty-three wounds,
one of which, at least, was fatal, and fell, uttering, a tradition
said, a word of gentle reproach to Brutus, one who had been counted a
special friend. _Cicero_ had acquiesced in the new government,
and eulogized _Caesar_ and his administration. But even he
expressed his satisfaction at the event which left the republic
without a master. An amnesty to those who slew Caesar was advocated by
him, and decreed by the Senate.

THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE.--The Senate gave to the leading conspirators
provinces; to _Decimus Brutus_, Cisalpine Gaul. But at Rome there
was quickly a re-action of popular wrath against the enemies of
Csesar, which was skillfully fomented by _Marcus Antonius_ in the
address which he made to the people over his dead body, pierced with
so many wounds. The people voted to give Cisalpine Gaul to
_Antonius_, and he set out to take it from _Decimus Brutus_
by force of arms. _Cicero_ delivered a famous series of harangues
against Antonius, called the _Philippics. Antonius,_ being
defeated, fled to _Lepidus_, the governor of Transalpine
Gaul. _Octavius_, the grand-nephew and adopted son of
_Caesar_, a youth of eighteen, now became prominent, and at first
was supported by the Senate in the hope of balancing the power of
_Antonius_. But in October, 43, _Octavianus_ (as he was
henceforward called), _Antonius,_ and _Lepidus_ together
formed a second triumvirate, which became legal, by the ratification
of the people, for the period of five years. A proscription for the
destruction of the enemies of the three contracting parties was a part
of this alliance. A great number were put to death, among them
_Cicero_, a sacrifice to the vengeance of Antonius. War against
the republicans was the necessary consequence. At _Philippi_ in
Thrace, in the year 42, _Antonius_ and _Octavianus_ defeated
_Brutus_ and _Cassius_, both of whom committed
suicide. _Porcia_, the wife of _Brutus_, and the daughter of
_Cato_, on hearing of her husband's death, put an end to her own
life. Many other adherents of the republic followed the example of
their leaders. The victors divided the world between themselves,
_Antonius_ taking the east, _Octavianus_ the west, while to
the weak and avaricious _Lepidus_, Africa was assigned; but he
was soon deprived of his share by _Octavianus_.

CIVIL WAR: ACTIUM.--_Antonius_ was enamoured of _Cleopatra_,
and, following her to Egypt, gave himself up to luxury and sensual
gratification. Civil war between _Octavianus_ and the followers
of _Antonius_ in Italy (40, 41 B.C.) was followed by the marriage
of _Octavia_, the sister of _Octavianus_, to
_Antonius_. But after a succession of disputes between the two
regents, there was a final breach. _Antonius_ (35) went so far as
to give Roman territories to the sons of _Cleopatra_, and to send
to _Octavia_ papers of divorce. The Senate, at the instigation of
_Octavianus_, deprived his unworthy colleague of all his
powers. War was declared against _Cleopatra_. East and West were
arrayed in arms against one another. The conflict was determined by
the naval victory of _Octavianus_at _Actium_ (Sept. 2, 31
B.C.). Before the battle was decided, _Cleopatra_ fled, and was
followed by _Antonius_. When the latter approached
_Alexandria_, _Antonius_, deceived by the false report that
_Cleopatra_ had destroyed herself, threw himself upon his sword
and died. _Cleopatra_, finding herself unable to fascinate the
conqueror, but believing that he meant that she should adorn his
public triumph at Rome, poisoned herself (30). _Egypt_ was made
into a Roman province. The month _Sextilis_, on which
_Octavianus_returned to Rome, received in honor of him the name
of "August," from "Augustus," the "venerated" or "illustrious," the
name given him in 27 B.C. by the Roman people and Senate. He
celebrated three triumphs; and, for the third time since the city was
founded, the Temple of Janus was closed.




PERIOD V. THE IMPERIAL MONARCHY: _TO THE MIGRATIONS OF THE TEUTONIC
TRIBES (375 A.D.)._




CHAPTER I. THE REIGN OF AUGUSTUS.


AUGUSTUS AS A RULER.--The long-continued, sanguinary civil wars made
peace welcome. _Augustus_ knew how to conceal his love of power
under a mild exterior, and to organize the monarchy with a nominal
adherence to republican forms. The controlling magistracies, except
the censorship, were transferred to him. As _Imperator_, he had
unlimited command over the military forces, and was at the head of a
standing army of three hundred and forty thousand men. To him it
belonged to decide on peace and war. The _Senate_ became the real
legislative body, issuing _senatus-consulta_. There was also a
sort of "cabinet council" chosen by him from its members. The
authority of the _Tribunes_ belonged to him, and thus the popular
assemblies became more and more a nullity. "The Senate was made up of
his creatures; the people were won by bread and games; the army was
fettered to him by means of booty and gifts." While the forms of a
free state remained, all the functions of authority were exercised by
the ruler.

STATE OF THE EMPIRE.--(1) _Its Extent_. The Roman Empire extended
from the Atlantic to the Euphrates, a distance of more than three
thousand miles, and from the Danube and the English Channel--later,
from the friths of Scotland--to the cataracts of the Nile and the
African desert. Its population was somewhere from eighty millions to
one hundred and twenty millions. It was composed of the _East_
and the _West_, a distinction that was not simply geographical,
but included deeper characteristic differences. (2) _The
Provinces_. The provinces were divided (27 B.C.) into the
_proconsular_, ruled by the Senate, and the _imperial_,
ruled by the legates of Augustus. His authority, however, was
everywhere supreme. Over all the empire extended the system of Roman
law, the rights and immunities of which belonged to Roman citizens
everywhere. (3) _The Two Languages_. It was a
_Romano-Hellenic_ monarchy. Local dialects remained; but the
_Greek_ language was the language of commerce, and of polite
intercourse in all places. The Greek tongue and Hellenic culture were
the common property of the nations. The _Latin_ was prevalent
west of the Adriatic. It was adopted in Africa, Spain, Gaul, and in
other provinces. It was the language of courts and of the camp. (4)
_Journeys and Trade_. The Roman territory was covered with a
net-work of magnificent roads. Journeys for purposes of trade and from
motives of curiosity were common. Religious pilgrimages to famous
shrines were frequent. The safety and peace which followed upon the
civil wars stimulated traffic and intercourse between the different
regions united under the imperial government.

LITERATURE.--The Augustan period was the golden age of Roman
literature. Literary works were topics of conversation in social
circles. Libraries were collected by the rich. The shops of
booksellers were places of resort for cultivated people. There were
active and liberal patrons of poets and of other men of letters. Such
patrons were _Maecenas_, _Horace's_ friend, and
_Augustus_ himself. Then favors were repaid by praises and
flattery, as we see in the verses of _Horace_, _Virgil_, and
especially of _Ovid_. The lectures of grammarians and
rhetoricians, of philosophers and physicians, were largely
attended. Literary societies were formed. Periodicals and bulletins
were published, in which the proceedings of the Senate and of the
courts were recorded. The business of _scribes_--copyists of
manuscripts--engaged a vast number of persons.

WRITINGS OF CICERO.--Cicero (106-43), in his philosophic writings,
reproduces the thoughts and speculations of the Greek sages, in the
manner of a cultivated and appreciative student. His speeches and his
epistles, especially those to his friend, _Atticus_, lift the
veil, as it were, and afford us most interesting glimpses of the civil
and social life of the Romans of that day.

THE POETS.--One of the most original of the Latin poets is
_Lucretius_ (95-51 B.C.), whose poem "On the Nature of Things" is
an effort to dispel superstitious fear by inculcating the Epicurean
doctrine that the world is self-made through the movement and
concussion of atoms, and that the gods leave it to care for itself. A
contemporary of Lucretius, and a poet of equal merit, but in an
altogether different vein, is _Catullus_. He is chiefly noted for
his lyrics. _Virgil_ (70-19 B.C.), in the _Aeneid_, has
produced a genuine Roman epic, although his dependence on Homer is
obvious throughout, and in the _Bucolics_, and in particular in
the _Georgics_, where he shows most originality, has made himself
immortal as a pastoral poet. _Horace_ (65-8 B.C.), like most of
the Roman authors, in many of his poems is inspired by his Greek
models, but, in his _Satires_ and _Poetic Epistles_,
expresses the character of his own genius. His "Odes," for their
beauty and melody and the variety of their topics, rank among the best
of all productions of their kind. _Ovid_ (43 B.C.-A.D. 18), in
his chief work, the _Metamorphoses_, handled the mythical tales
of the Greeks, and, in his poems on _Love_, likewise introduced
many Grecian tales. He was much influenced by the Alexandrian poets.

THE HISTORIANS.--In historical composition, most of the Roman authors
had Greek patterns before their eyes. Nevertheless, _Livy_ (59
B.C.-A.D. 17), thirty-five of the one hundred and forty-two books of
whose "Annals" have been preserved, and _Sallust_, to whom we are
indebted for narratives of the conspiracy of Cataline and of the
Jugurthine war, are far from being servile copyists. The simple and
lucid but graceful style of the _Commentaries_ of _Caesar_
makes this work an example of the purest Latin prose.

LAW WRITERS.--In one department, that of jurisprudence, the Romans
were eminently original. The writings of the great jurists were simple
and severe, and free from the rhetorical traits which Roman authors in
other departments borrowed from the Greeks.

OTHER AUTHORS.--Among other eminent authors of this period are the
great Roman antiquary _Varro_ (116-27 B.C.); the elegiac poets,
_Tibullus_ and _Propertius_; _Phaedrus_, the Roman
Aesop; the historian, _Cornelius Nepos_; and the Greek
historical writers of that day, _Diodore_ of Sicily and
_Dionysius_ of Halicarnassus; also _Strabo_, the Greek
geographer (64 B.C.-A.D. 24).



THE INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY.

THE JEWS AND THEIR DISPERSION.--There were three ancient peoples, each
of which fulfilled an office of its own in history. The _Greeks_
were the intellectual people, the _Romans_ were founders in law
and politics: from the _Hebrews_ the true religion was to
spring. At the epoch of the birth of Jesus, the Hebrews, like the
Greeks and Romans, were scattered abroad, and mingled with all other
nations. Wherever they went they carried their pure monotheism, and
built their synagogues for instruction in the law and for common
worship. In the region of _Babylon_, a multitude of Jews had
remained after the captivity. Two out of the five sections of
_Alexandria_ were occupied by them. At _Antioch_ in Syria,
the other great meeting-place of peoples of diverse origin and
religion, they were very numerous. In the cities of Asia Minor, of
Greece and Macedonia, in Illyricum and in Rome, they were planted in
large numbers. Jewish merchants went wherever there was room for
profitable trade. Generally regarded with aversion on account of their
religious exclusiveness, they nevertheless made so many proselytes
that the Roman philosopher, _Seneca_, said of them, "The
conquered have given laws to the conquerors." Prophecy had inspired
the Jews with an abiding and fervent expectation of the ultimate
conquest of heathenism, and prevalence of their faith. If the hope of
a temporal Messiah to free them from the Roman yoke, and to lead them
to an external victory and dominion, burned in the hearts of most,
there were some of a more spiritual mind and of deeper aspirations,
who looked for One who should minister to the soul, and bring in a
reign of holiness and peace.

PREPARATION FOR CHRISTIANITY AMONG THE HEATHEN.--In the heathen world,
there was not wanting a preparation for such a Deliverer. The union of
all the nations in the Roman Empire had lessened the mutual antipathy
of peoples, melted down barriers of feeling as well as of intercourse,
and weakened the pride of race. An indistinct sense of a common
humanity had entered the breasts of men. Writers, like _Cicero_,
talked of a great community, a single society of gods and men. The
_Stoic philosophy_ had made this idea familiar. Mankind, it was
said, formed one city. Along with this conception, precepts were
uttered in favor of forbearance and fraternal kindness between man and
man. In religion, there was a drift towards monotheism. The old
mythological religion was decaying, and traditional beliefs as to
divine things were dissolving. Many minds were yearning for something
to fill the void,--for a more substantial ground of rest and of
hope. They longed for a goal on which their aspirations might center,
and to which their exertions might tend. The burden of sin and of
suffering that rested on the common mass excited at least a vague
yearning for deliverance. The Roman Empire, with all its treasures and
its glory, failed to satisfy the hearts of men. The dreams of
philosophy could not be realized on the basis of ancient society,
where the state was every thing, and where no higher, more
comprehensive and more enduring kingdom could spring into being.

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