A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P R S T U V W X Z

Outline of Universal History

G >> George Park Fisher >> Outline of Universal History




STRIFE WITH THE NOBLES.--The first years of _Louis's_ reign
(1461-1467) were passed in a struggle with the great lords whom he was
determined to subdue. At the beginning his measures for this end were
imprudent. They combined against him in the _League of the Public
Weal_ in 1464. Their force was so great that he stood in imminent
peril. He counted on the support of _Paris_, and was trying to
reach that city when the hostile armies encountered one another at
Montlhéry (1465). It was an absurd battle, where at night both parties
thought themselves beaten. The king secured his place of refuge. He
deemed it prudent to make peace on the terms demanded by the _Count
of Charolois,_ and the other nobles. This treaty of _Conflans_
(1465) he caused the Parliament of Paris to refuse to ratify or
register. He had trusted to his ability to regain what he might
surrender. The strife between the _Duke of Brittany_ and the
king's brother _Charles,_ now made _Duke of Normandy,_
enabled Louis soon to recover Normandy.

CHARLES THE BOLD, AND LOUIS.--The death of _Philip_ made his son,
_Charles the Bold,_ Duke of Burgundy. Charles was in the prime of
life, of a chivalrous temper, courteous and polished, fond of reading
and music, as well as of knightly sports, and with his head full of
dreams of ambition. With certain noble qualities, his pride was
excessive, his temper not only hot but obstinate, and, as he grew
older, he became more overbearing and cruel. He was the most powerful
prince in Europe. The most of his lands were German. In the early part
of his reign he pursued the same scheme as that which was at the root
of the _League of the Public Weal_. He aimed to hem in
_Louis_, and to build up his own power in the direction of
France. He allied himself, in 1466, with the _House of York_,
then uppermost in _England_. An English force was sent to
_Calais_ in 1467. Threatened by this coalition of adversaries,
_Louis_ hastened to attack _Brittany_, and forced its duke
to conclude a separate peace. Trusting too much to his powers of
negotiation, and yielding to the treacherous advice of Cardinal
_Balue_, one of his chief counselors, the king determined to go
in person to confer with _Charles of Burgundy_. He soon learned
that his safe-conduct was of little value. At _Peronne_, he found
himself in the midst of enemies, and in reality a prisoner. While
there, _Liège_ was in revolt, as _Charles_ ascertained, at
the king's instigation. The wrathful duke could be appeased only by
agreeing to every thing that he required. _Louis_ had to undergo
the humiliation of attending _Charles_ and his army, and of
basely taking part in the vengeance inflicted on the city which he had
himself stirred up to revolt. He was glad to escape with his
life. After his return, he ordered _Balue_ to be put in an iron
cage, where he was kept for ten years,--a mode of punishment of
Balue's own invention. Louis repudiated the treaty of _Peronne_,
under the advice of a body of _Notables_, all of whom he had
nominated and summoned. A new league was organized against him; but
the king by his wariness, and by his promptitude in attacking
_Brittany_, gained advantages, so that a truce was concluded with
the _Burgundian_ duke in 1472. _Philip de Commines_, at that
time a companion and counselor of _Charles_, left his service for
that of _Louis_. To his _Memoirs_ we owe most instructive
and interesting details respecting these princes, and the manners and
occurrences of the time.

CHARLES THE BOLD, AND THE SWISS.--From this time _Charles_ turned
his attention _eastward_, and devoted himself to building up a
great principality on the _Rhine_, which might open the way for
his succession to the empire. It seemed to be his plan to bring
together the old kingdom of _Lotharingia_ and that of the
_Burgundies_. He found no sympathy in his schemes from the
emperor _Frederick III_. The great barrier in Charles's way was
the freedom-loving spirit of the inhabitants of the Swiss
mountains. Availing himself of a plausible pretext, he endeavored to
get possession of _Cologne_ by first laying siege to
_Neuss_, which lies below it. Wasting his strength in the
unsuccessful attempt to capture this place, he failed to make a
junction of his forces with the English troops who landed in
_France_ under his ally, King _Edward IV_. The English king
was persuaded to make a truce with France by the wily _Louis_,
who was constantly on the watch for any mistakes or mishaps of his
impetuous Burgundian adversary. The cruelty of _Charles_ to the
Swiss inhabitants of _Granson_, who had surrendered, brought upon
him an attack of their exasperated countrymen near that place
(1476). The _Burgundians_ were routed; and the duke's camp, with
all its treasures, including his sword, the plate of his chapel, and
precious stones of inestimable value, fell into the hands of the hardy
mountaineers, who knew nothing of the worth of these things. The next
year the Duke once more flung his reckless valor against the strength
of the Swiss infantry, and barely escaped from an utter defeat at
_Morat_. Made desperate by misfortune, he risked another battle
near _Nanci_, in 1477, at the head of an inferior force, composed
partly of treacherous mercenaries, and was vanquished and slain. He
had intended to make _Nanci_ his capital; but his body was found
near by in a swamp, stripped of its clothing, frozen, and covered with
wounds.

EXTENSION OF FRANCE.--_Louis XI_ could hardly stifle expressions
of joy at the news of the death of his hated and formidable
rival. While _Charles_ had been busy in Germany, _Louis_ had
taken the opportunity to put down, one by one, the great nobles who had
shown themselves ill-affected. He secured to France _Roussillon_
and the northern slopes of the Pyrenees. It was now his purpose to lay
hold of as many as possible of the possessions of the late
duke. _Mary_, the daughter of _Charles the Bold_, the heiress
of _Burgundy_, gave her hand in marriage to _Maximilian_ of
_Austria_, an event which carried after it the most important
consequences. The result of the conflicts of _Louis_ and
_Maximilian_ was the Peace of _Arras_ (1482), which left in
the hands of France the towns on the _Somme_, and the great
_Burgundian duchy_. For a time _Maximilian_, as holder of the
French fiefs of Flanders and Artois, was a vassal of the French
king. On the death of King _René_, in 1480, and the extinction of
the house of _Anjou_, Louis annexed the three great districts of
_Anjou, Maine_, and _Provence_, the last of which was a fief
of the empire.

LAST DAYS OF LOUIS XI.--In his last days, old King _Louis_, in
wretched health, tortured with the fear of death, and in constant dread
of plots to destroy him, shut himself up in the castle of
_Plessis-les-Tours_, which he strongly fortified, and manned with
guards who were instructed to shoot all who approached without
leave. He kept up his activity in management, and in truth devised
schemes for the advantage of his realm. His selfish and malignant
temper brought to him one unexpected joy from the sudden death of
_Mary of Burgundy_ (1482), from which, however, France did not
reap the advantages which he expected. He died in 1483, at the age of
sixty-one. He, more than any other, was the founder of the French
monarchy in the later form. He centralized the administration of the
government. He fought against feudalism, old and new. He strengthened,
however, local authority where it did not interfere with the power of
the king. In matters of internal government he was often just and wise.

CHARLES VIII. (1483-1496): ANNE OF BEAUJEU.--_Charles VIII._ at
the death of his father was only fourteen years old. But in his older
sister, _Anne of Beaujeu_, the wife of _Peter of Bourbon_, he
had an energetic guide who for ten years virtually managed public
affairs. She proved too strong for the opposition of the royal princes,
of the nobility, and of the States General. The nobles turned for
support to _Richard III. of England_. _Anne_ strengthened
with men and money _Henry of Richmond_, the rival and conqueror of
Richard. The Duke of Brittany, with his allies, the Duke of Orleans,
the Prince of Orange, and others, was defeated in a hardly contested
battle in 1488, which was followed by a treaty advantageous to
France. The crowning achievement of _Anne of Beaujeu_ was the
marriage of _Anne of Brittany_ to _Charles VIII_. This was
accomplished although she had already been married by proxy to
_Maximilian_, while _Charles_ was pledged to marry
_Margaret_, the emperor's daughter. If _Anne of Brittany_
should outlive _Charles_, she engaged to marry his successor. This
second marriage actually took place: she became the wife of _Louis
XII_. Brittany was thus incorporated in France. The Italian
expeditions, the great events in the reign of _Charles VIII._,
will be related hereafter.


II. ENGLAND.

WAR OF THE ROSES: THE HOUSE OF YORK.--The crown in England had come to
be considered as the property of a family, to which the legitimate
heir had a sacred claim. The Wars of the Roses (1455-1485) grew out of
family rivalries. It was a fight among nobles. But other reasons were
not without influence. The party of _York_ (whose badge was the
white rose) was the popular party, which had its strength in Kent and
in the trading cities. It went for reform of government. The party of
_Lancaster_ (whose badge was the red rose) was the more
conservative party, having its strength among the barons of the
North. _Richard_, Duke of York, thought that he had a better
claim to the English crown than _Henry VI._, because his
ancestor, _Lionel_, was an older son of _Edward III._ than
_John of Gaunt_, the ancestor of _Henry_. The king was
insane at times, and _Richard_ was made Protector or Regent of
Parliament. But _Henry_, becoming better, drove him from his
presence. He organized an insurrection, but was defeated in a battle
at _Wakefield_ by the troops of the strong-hearted queen. He was
crowned with a wreath of grass, and then beheaded. His brave son,
_Rutland_, was killed as he fled. But Richard's eldest son,
_Edward--Edward IV._ (1461-1483)--supported by the powerful Earl
of _Warwick_, "the king-maker," defeated the queen at
_Towton_, took possession of the throne, and imprisoned _Henry
VI._, who had fallen into imbecility. Edward was popular because he
kept order. But the favors which he lavished on the _Woodvilles_,
relatives of his Lancastrian wife _Elizabeth_, enabled the
opposing party, to which _Warwick_ deserted, to get the upper
hand (1470); and _Edward_ fled to Holland. But he soon returned,
and won the battles of _Barnet_ and _Tewkesbury_
(1471). _Henry VI._ was secretly murdered in the Tower. The house
of _York_ was now in the ascendant. A quarrel between the king
and his ambitious brother _Clarence_, who had married
_Warwick's_ daughter, led to the trial and condemnation of
_Clarence_, who was put to death in the Tower. It was during the
reign of _Edward IV._ that _Caxton_ set up the first
printing-press in England. After Edward his brother reigned,
_Richard III._ (1483-1485), a brave but merciless man, who made
his way to the throne by the death of the two young princes
_Edward_ and _Richard_, whose murder in the Tower he is with
good reason supposed to have procured. He had pretended that _Edward
IV._ had never been lawfully married to their mother. Henry
_Tudor_, Earl of Richmond, descended by his mother from _John
of Gaunt_, aided by France, landed in Wales, and won a victory at
_Bosworth_ over the adherents of the white rose,--a victory which
gave him a kingdom and a crown. Thus the house of _Lancaster_ in
the person of _Henry VII._ (1485-1509), gained the throne. He
married _Elizabeth_, the eldest daughter of _Edward IV._,
and so the two hostile houses were united. He was the first of the
TUDOR kings.

CHARACTER OF THE CIVIL WARS.--The Wars of the Roses are, in certain
respects, peculiar. They extended over a long period, but did not
include more than three years of actual fighting. The battles were
fierce, and the combatants unsparing in the treatment of their
foes. Yet the population of the country did not diminish. Business and
the administration of justice went on as usual. Trade began to be held
in high esteem, and traders to amass wealth. The number of journeymen
and day-laborers increased, and there was a disposition to break
through the guild laws.

EFFECTS OF THE CIVIL WARS.--The most striking result of the civil wars
was the strengthening of the power of the king. Not more than thirty
of the old nobles survived. Laws were made forbidding the nobles to
keep armed "_retainers_;" and against "_maintenance_," or
the custom of nobles to promise to support, in their quarrels or
law-cases, men who adhered to them. The court of the _Star
Chamber_ was set up to prevent these abuses. It was turned into an
instrument of tyranny in the hands of the kings. _Henry VII._
extorted from the rich, "_benevolences_," or gifts solicited by
the king, which the law authorized him to collect as a tax. He
contrived to get money in such ways, and thus to carry forward the
government without Parliament, which met only once during the last
thirteen years of his reign. Royal power, in relation to the nobles,
was further exalted by the introduction of cannon into warfare, which
only the king possessed. Two pretenders to the throne, _Lambert
Simnel_ (1487), and _Perkin Warbeck_ (1492), were raised up;
but the efforts made to dethrone _Henry_ proved abortive. He kept
watch over his enemies at home and abroad, and punished all resistance
to his authority. Circumstances enabled the founder of the
_Tudor_ line to exalt the power of the king over the heads of
both the nobles and the commons.


III. SPAIN.

FERDINAND OF ARAGON (1479-15l6).--The union of _Aragon_ and
_Castile_, by the marriage of _Ferdinand_ and
_Isabella_ (1474-1504), was nominal, as each sovereign reigned
independently in his own dominion. But both sovereigns were bent on
the same end,--that of subjecting the powerful grandees and feudal
lords to their authority. In this policy they found efficient helpers
in the shrewd and loyal counselor _Mendoza_, Cardinal and
Archbishop of Toledo, and in _Ximenes_, who combined the
qualities of a prelate of strict orthodoxy with those of a profound
and energetic statesman. To bring both nobles and clergy into
subservience to the crown, was their great aim; and for this end the
sagacious _Ferdinand_ procured from the Pope the privilege of
filling the bishoprics and the grand masterships of the military
orders. He deprived the nobles of their _judicial_ functions,
which he committed to impartial and severe tribunals of his own
creation. He re-organized and strengthened the _Holy Hermanadad_,
or militia of the cities, and thus had at his service against the
grandees a standing military force. He used the nobles and the cities
to keep one another in check. Over both stood the
_Inquisition_,--a tribunal established against the _Moors_
and the _Jews_ who had made an outward profession of
Christianity, but which under _Torquemada_, who had been
confessor of the queen, became a terror to all Spain. The king had the
power to name the _Grand Inquisitor_ and all the judges; and he
thus acquired in this institution not only a fearful weapon against
heretics of every description, but also a political instrument for the
subjugation of the nobles and the clergy. By this alliance of the
throne and the altar, the despotic power of _Ferdinand_ had the
firmest prop.

CONQUEST OF GRANADA.--After a ten-years' bloody war, the Moorish
kingdom of _Granada_ was conquered. The capital, with the famous
castle of _Alhambra_, was captured (1492). The dethroned Moorish
king, _Boabdil_, robbed of his possessions, sailed to Africa,
where he fell in battle. By the terms of their surrender, the Moors
were to have the free exercise of their religion. But the promise was
not kept. Choice was given to the Moslems to become Christians, or to
emigrate. Many left to wage war elsewhere against their Spanish
persecutors, either as corsairs in Africa, or as bands of robbers in
_Sierra Nevada_. The professed converts were goaded by cruel
treatment into repeated insurrections. It was a fierce war of races and
religions. The frightful sufferings of the Moors, under the pressure of
this double fanaticism, form a long and gloomy chapter of Spanish
history. The dismal tale continues until the cruel expulsion from the
kingdom of nearly a million of this unhappy people by _Philip
III._, in 1609.

FERDINAND, REGENT OF CASTILE.--Most of the children of
_Ferdinand_ and _Isabella_ died young. Their daughter
_Joanna_ married _Philip of Burgundy_, son of
_Maximilian_ and _Mary_; but he died in 1506, at the age of
twenty-eight. They had been recognized as the rulers of
_Castile_. But the mind of _Joanna_, who had always been
eccentric, became disordered, so that the government devolved on
_Ferdinand_, her father. He placed her in the castle at
_Tordesillas_, where the remainder of her life, which continued
forty-seven years longer, was spent. _Ferdinand_ was, in form,
constituted by the _Cortes_ (1510), regent of the kingdom in the
name of his daughter, and as guardian of her son _(Charles)_.
_Ferdinand_ administered the government with wisdom and
moderation. As there were no children by his second marriage with
_Germaine de Foix_, niece of _Louis XII._ of France, the
succession of _Joanna's_ son remained secure. Ferdinand availed
himself of the disturbances in France to annex to _Castile_ the
portion of _Navarre_ lying on the south of the Pyrenees.


IV. GERMANY AND THE EMPIRE.

FREDERICK III. (1440-1493).--While _England, France_, and
_Spain_ were organizing monarchy, _Italy_ and _Germany_
kept up the anarchical condition of the Middle Ages. Hence these
countries, first _Italy_ and then _Germany_, became enticing
fields of conquest for other nations. _Frederick III._ was the
last emperor crowned at Rome (1452), and only one other emperor after
him was crowned by the Pope. Frederick reigned longer than any other
German king before or after him. He lacked energy, neglected the
empire, and busied himself in enlarging his Austrian domains, which he
erected into an _archduchy_ (1453). When he sought to interfere
with the German princes, they set him at defiance. He did little more
than remain an indolent spectator of the conflict in which the Swiss
overthrew _Charles the Bold_. The great danger to Europe was now
from the _Turks_. Christendom was defended by the Poles and the
Hungarians. _Frederick_ left the Hungarians, under the gallant
_John Hunyady_, without his help, to drive them, in 1456, from
_Belgrade_. He tried to obtain the Bohemian and Hungarian crowns;
but _Podiebrad_, a Utraquist nobleman, was made king of Bohemia,
and _Matthias Corvinus_ succeeded _Hunyady_, his father, on
the throne of Hungary. By the death of _Albert_, the brother of
_Frederick_, to whom the emperor had been compelled to give up
_Vienna_, he became master of all the Austrian lands except
Tyrol. He was bent on getting the Hungarian crown; but _Vienna_
was taken by _Matthias_, in 1485, and the emperor had to fly for
his life. A great confederation, composed of princes, nobles, and
cities, was made in Swabia, for repressing private war, and did much
good in South Germany. The western part of _Prussia_ was taken
from the Teutonic Knights by the Peace of _Thorn_, in 1466, and
annexed to _Poland_ by _Casimir IV_.

Maximilian I. (1493-15l9).--_Maximilian I._ was a restless
prince, eager for adventure. Although not crowned, he was authorized
by Pope _Julius II._ to style himself "Emperor Elect." In his
reign, efforts, only in part successful, were made to secure peace and
order in Germany. At the Diet of _Worms_ in 1495, a perpetual
_public peace_, or prohibition of private feuds, was proclaimed;
and a court called the _Imperial Chamber_, the judges of which,
except the president, were appointed by the states, was constituted to
adjust controversies among them. The benefits of this arrangement were
partly defeated by the _Aulic Council_, an Austrian tribunal
established by _Maximilian_ for his own domains, but which
interfered in matters properly belonging to the
_Chamber_. Germany was also divided into _circles_, or
districts, for governmental purposes. In 1499 _Maximilian_
endeavored, without success, to coerce the _Swiss League_ into
submission to the Imperial Chamber, and to punish it for helping the
French in their Italian invasion. Although he was brave, cultured, and
eloquent, he lacked perseverance, and not a few of his numerous
projects failed. The most fortunate event in his life, as regards the
aggrandizement of his house, was his marriage to _Mary of
Burgundy_ (1477). His grandson _Ferdinand_ married the sister
of _Louis II._, the last king of _Bohemia_ of the Polish
line, who was also king of _Hungary_; and by the election of
_Ferdinand_ to be his successor (1526), both these countries were
added to the vast possessions of the Austrian family. To Maximilian's
doings in _Italy_, we shall soon refer.

GERMAN CITIES.--From the middle of the thirteenth century there was a
rapid growth of German cities, and an advance of the
trading-classes. The cities gained a large measure of self-government,
and were prosperous little republics. They were centers of commerce
and wealth, and often exercised power much beyond their own precincts,
which were well defended by ditches, walls, and towers. The old Gothic
town-halls in _Aix, Nuremburg, Cologne,_ etc., are monuments of
municipal thrift and dignity. Their churches and convents grew rich,
and schools with numerous pupils were connected with them. Dwellings
became more comfortable and attractive. All branches of art and
manufacture flourished. The city nobles and the guilds had their
banquets. In the church festivals all the people took part. The German
cities, such as _Mayence, Worms, Strasburg, Lübeck, Augsburg,_
excited the admiration even of Italian visitors.



THE MEDICI.

Giovanni d' Medici, _d._ 1429.
|
+--COSMO ("Father of his Country"), _d._ 1464.
| |
| +--PIERO, _d._ 1469.
| |
| +--LORENZO (the Magnificent), _d._ 1492.
| | |
| | +--Maddelena.
| | |
| | +--PIERO _d._ 1503
| | | |
| | | +--LORENZO II, Duke of Urbino, _d._ 1510.
| | | |
| | | +--Catharine, _m._ Henry II of France.
| | | |
| | | +--ALESSANDRO, First Duke of Florence, 1531-1537.
| | |
| | +--GIOVANNI (Pope Leo X), _d._ 1521.
| | |
| | +--GIULIANO, Duke of Nemours, _d._ 1516.
| | |
| | +--Ippolito (Cardinal), _d._ 1535.
| |
| +--GIULIANO, killed by Pozzi 1478.
| |
| +--Giulio (Pope Clement VII), _d._ 1534.
|
+--LORENZO, _d._ 1440.
|
+--Piero Francesco, _d._ 1474.
|
+--Giuliano, _d._ 1498.
|
+--Giovanni (the Invincible), _d._ 1526.
|
+--COSIMO I, First Grand Duke of Tuscany, 1537-1574.
|
+--FRANCESCO, 1574-1587, _m._ Joanna,
| daughter of Emperor Ferdinand I.
| |
| +--Mary _m._ Henry IV of France.
|
+--FERDINAND I, 1587-1600, _m._ Christina,
daughter of Charles II of Lorraine.
|
+--COSIMO II, 1609-1621, _m._ Mary Magdalen,
sister of Emperor Ferdinand II.
|
+--FERDINAND II, 1621-1670.
|
+--COSIMO III, 1670-1723.
|
+--JOHN GASTON, 1723-1737.


V. ITALY.

CONDITION OF ITALY.--Italy, at the epoch of the French invasions, was
the most prosperous as well as the most enlightened and civilized
country in Europe. Its opulent and splendid cities were the admiration
of all visitors from the less favored countries of the North. But
national unity was wanting. The country was made up of discordant
states. _Venice_ was ambitious of conquest; and the pontiffs in
this period, to the grief of all true friends of religion, were
absorbed in Italian politics, being eager to carve out principalities
for their relatives. Italy was exposed to _two_ perils. On the
one hand, it was menaced by the Ottoman Turks; not to speak of the
kings of France and Spain, who were rival aspirants for control in the
Italian peninsula. On the other hand, voyages of discovery were
threatening to open new highways of commerce to supersede the old
routes of traffic through its maritime cities.

MILAN.--The fall of Constantinople produced a momentary union in
Italy. At _Lodi_, in 1454, the principal states took an oath of
perpetual concord,--_Francesco Sforza_, Duke of Milan; _Cosmo de
Medici_, to whom Florence had given the name of "Father of his
Country;" _Alfonso V._ the Magnanimous, king of Naples and Sicily;
the Popes _Calixtus III._ and _Pius II_. (1458-1464). But
conflicts soon arose among them. An abortive attempt was made by
_John_ of Calabria to deprive _Ferdinand_ of Naples of his
inheritance (1462). In 1478 there was a coalition against Florence; in
1482, a coalition against Venice. The Turks made the best use of these
quarrels, and captured _Otranto_ (1480), killing or enslaving
twelve thousand Christians. The idea of the ancients that
_tyrannicide_ is a virtue, whether the master be good or bad, was
caught up, and gave rise to conspiracies. At Milan, in 1476, the cruel
Duke _Galeazzo Maria_ was assassinated by three young men, near
the Church of St. Stephen. _Giovanni Galeazzo_, his son, a minor,
married a daughter of the king of Naples. But his uncle, _Ludovico il
Moro_, had seized on power, and ruled in the name of _Giovanni_
(1480). He imprisoned _Giovanni_ and his young wife; and being
threatened by the king of Naples, who had for an ally _Peter de
Medici_, he formed an alliance with the Pope and the Venetians; and,
not confiding in them, he invited _Charles VIII_. of France to
invade the kingdom of Naples. _Genoa_ fell under the yoke of
_Ludovico_, who was invested with it by _Charles VIII._ as a
fief of France.

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