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Outline of Universal History

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CHAPTER III. THE PHOENICIANS AND CARTHAGINIANS.


PHOENICIA.--A narrow strip of territory separates the mountains of
Syria and Palestine from the Mediterranean. Of this belt the northern
part, west of Lebanon, about one hundred and fifty miles long, varies
in width from five to fourteen miles. In some places the cliffs
approach close to the sea. This belt of land was occupied by the first
of the great maritime and commercial peoples of antiquity, the
Phoenicians. Their language was Semitic, closely akin to Hebrew.

COMMERCE AND PROSPERITY OF THE PHOENICIANS.--The most important of the
Phoenician cities were Sidon--which was the first of them to rise to
distinction and power--and Tyre, which became more famous as a mart,
and comprised, besides the town on the coast, New Tyre, the city built
on the neighboring rocky island. In New Tyre was the sanctuary of the
tutelary god, _Melkart_. The spirit of trade stimulated
ingenuity. The Phoenicians were noted for their glass, their purple
dyes, their improved alphabet, and knowledge of the art of writing. In
mining and in casting metals, in the manufacture of cloth, in
architecture, and in other arts, they were not less proficient. From
their situation they naturally became a seafaring race. Not only did
they transport their cargoes of merchandise to the islands and shores
of the Mediterranean, conveying thither not merely the fruits of their
own industry and skill, but also the productions of the East: they
ventured to steer their vessels beyond the Strait of Gibraltar; and,
if they did not procure amber directly from the North Sea, they
brought tin either directly from Cornwall or from the Scilly
Islands. Through the hands of Phoenician merchants "passed the gold
and pearls of the East, the purple of Tyre, slaves, ivory, lions' and
panthers' skins from the interior of Africa, frankincense from Arabia,
the linen of Egypt, the pottery and fine wares of Greece, the copper
of Cyprus, the silver of Spain, tin from England, and iron from Elba."
These products were carried wherever a market could be found for
them. At the instigation of Necho, king of Egypt (610-594 B.C.), they
are said to have made a three years' voyage round the southern cape of
Africa.

COLONIES: OPULENCE.-The Phoenicians were the first great colonizing
nation of antiquity. It was the fashion of Assyrians and other
conquerors to transport to their own lands multitudes of people, whom
they carried away as captives from their homes. The Phoenicians--in
this particular the forerunners of the Greeks and of the Dutch and the
English--planted trading settlements in Cyprus and Crete, on the
islands of the Ægean Sea, in southern Spain, and in North
Africa. _Cadiz_, one of the oldest towns in Europe, was founded
by these enterprising traders (about 1100 B.C.). _Tarshish_ was
another of their Spanish settlements. "Ships of Tarshish," like the
modern "East Indiamen," came to signify vessels capable of making long
voyages. The coast of modern Andalusia and Granada belonged to the
Phoenicians. Through caravans their intercourse was not less lively
with the states on the Euphrates, with Nineveh and Babylon, as well as
with Egypt. Tyre was a link between the East and the West.

HIRAM: SETTLEMENT OF CARTHAGE.--The Tyrian power attained to its
height under King _Hiram I._, the contemporary and ally of
_Solomon_. Two Greek historians make his reign to extend from 969
to 936 B.C. The alliance with Solomon extended the traffic of Tyre,
and increased its wealth. Hiram connected old and New Tyre by a
bridge. The Tyrians adorned their city with stately palaces and
temples, and built strong fortifications. Engrossed in manufactures
and commerce, and delighting in the affluence thus engendered, the
Phoenicians were not ambitious of conquest. Although conquerors upon
the sea, they were not a martial people: like commercial states
generally, they preferred peace. Of the people of Laish (Dan), it is
said in the Book of Judges (xviii. 7), "They dwelt careless, after the
manner of the Zidonians, quiet and secure." This pacific temper was
coupled with a fervent attachment to their own land and to their
countrymen wherever they went. But they lacked the political
instinct. They did not appreciate liberty, and their love of traffic
and of gain often made them prefer to pay tribute rather than to
fight. Their colonies were factories, but were not centers of further
conquest, or germs of political communities. When, the family of
_Hiram_ was exterminated (about 850 B.C.) by the high-priest of
the goddess Astarte, who seized on power, civil strife and disorder
ensued. _Pygmalion_, the great-grandson of the high-priest, as it
is related by a Grecian authority, slew his uncle, who was to marry
Pygmalion's sister, _Elissa_. On account of this internal
conflict, and from dread of the Assyrian power, a large number of the
old families emigrated to North Africa, and founded Carthage (about
814 B.C.).

The Phoenician cities were confederated together under hereditary
kings, whose power was limited by the lay and priestly
aristocracy. The common people, many of whom were skilled artisans,
made themselves felt in some degree in public affairs. The mercantile
class were influential. Thus there was developed a germinant municipal
feeling and organization. The "strong city," Tyre, is mentioned in
_Joshua_ xix. 29. In _Isaiah_ xxiii., Tyre is described as
"the crowning city, whose merchants are princes, whose traffickers are
the honourable of the earth." "He stretched out his hand over the sea,
he shook the kingdoms." The fate of Babylon is pointed at by the
Prophet, to show what Tyre had to expect from Assyria. Later, before
the conquest by Nebuchadnezzar, _Ezekiel_ thus speaks of Tyre
(chap, xxvii.): "They have taken cedars from Lebanon to make masts for
thee." "Of the oaks of Bashan have they made thine oars." "Tarshish
was thy merchant."

RELIGION AND LETTERS.--A very prominent feature of the religion of the
Phaenicians is the local character of their divinities. The word
_baal_("lord" or "god") was not used in Phaenicia as the proper
name of any one god. But such names as _Baal-sidon_, "Lord of
Sidon," _Baal-libanon_, "God of Lebanon," etc., are
common. _Astarte_ was the most common name for the local female
divinities. The gods were often thought of as dwelling in stones,
trees, and other objects; the worship of stone-pillars and sacred
poles (_ashera_; translated "grove" in the English Bible) was
especially common in Phaenicia. On the other hand, a "god of heaven"
and a "goddess of heaven" were worshiped. In the religion of the
Phaenicians, the more elevated ingredients of the Semitic heathenism
are in the background. The sensual features of it are more prominent,
and savage elements are introduced. It was more adapted to foster than
to check lust and cruelty. To Astarte, maidens sacrifice their
chastity. There was the same double ritual, made up of gross
sensuality on the one hand, and of ascetic practices by the priesthood
on the other, that belonged to the service of Mylitta at
Babylon. Human sacrifice by fire was another horrible
feature. Children, especially, were offered to _El _("god";
possibly also called _Melek_ (Moloch), "the king," as among the
Hebrews). To appease him at Tyre and Carthage, girls and boys,
sometimes in large numbers, and of the highest families, were cast
into the flames; while the wailing of their relatives, if it was not
stifled by themselves at the supposed demand of piety, was drowned by
the sound of musical instruments. As late as 310 B.C., when Agathocles
was besieging Carthage, and had reduced the city to the direst
straits, we are told that the people laid two hundred boys of their
noblest families upon the arms of the brazen image of the god, whence
they were allowed to fall into the fire beneath. On similar occasions,
even the head of the state sometimes offered himself as a
sacrifice. _Hamilcar_, the Carthaginian, son of Hanno, in Sicily,
when the tide of battle was turning against him, threw himself into
the fire (480 B.C.). Juba, king of Numidia, prepared to do the same
after the battle of Thapsus. Large and costly temples were built,
generally in the Egyptian style. Such were the temples of
_Melkart_ at Tyre and Cadiz, of _Eshmun_ at Sidon, and of
"the Lady of Byblos" at that city. Nature--as dying in the autumn, and
again reviving in the spring--is figured as the god _Adonisz_,
who is honored first by a protracted season of mourning, and then by a
joyous festival.

The Phoenicians were not a literary people. Their alphabet (invented
by them?) was the old Semitic alphabet. Every character represented a
sound. From the Phaenicians it spread, and became the mother of most
of the graphic systems now existing. Cadmus, however, by whom it was
said to be carried to the Greeks, is a fabulous person. The alleged
history of _Sanchuniathon_, which was published in Greek by
_Philo_ of Byblus, in the second century A.D., is now generally
believed to be the work of Philo himself.

HISTORICAL EVENTS.--In the struggles against the Mesopotamian empires,
the Phaenicians defended themselves with valor and perseverance. When
_Sargon_ (722-705 B.C.) had subjugated their cities on the
mainland, insular Tyre for five years repelled his assaults, although
the conduits bringing fresh water from the shore were cut off, and the
besieged were obliged to content themselves with the scanty supply to
be gained from wells dug with great labor. Soon the Tyrian fleets
regained their mastery on the sea. When Nebuchadnezzar captured old
Tyre, and a multitude of its inhabitants shared the lot of the Jews,
and were dragged off by the conqueror to the Euphrates, the island
city withstood his attack for thirteen years, and did not yield until
it extorted from him a treaty. But the power of resistance was
weakened by the repeated invasions and domination of Nineveh and
Babylon. Tyre submitted to Persia after the downfall of the Babylonian
monarchy, and added her fleet to the Persian forces; although to the
Phoenician towns was left a degree of freedom and their local
government. Sidon, Tyre, and Arados had a council of their own, which
met with their respective kings and senators at Tripolis, for the
regulation of matters of common interest. Manufactures and commerce
continued to flourish. Under the Persian supremacy, Sidon once more
became the chief city. In the middle of the fourth century B.C., it
revolted against the tyranny of the foreign governors. The Persian
king, _Ochus_, ordered that the noblest citizens should be put to
death; whereupon the inhabitants set the city on fire, and destroyed
themselves and their treasures in the flames. Tyre remained, but
ventured to resist _Alexander the Great_, after his conquest of
the Persians, and by him was captured and partly demolished (332
B.C.). After the death of Alexander, the Phoenicians fell under the
sway of the _Seleucidæ_ at Antioch, and, for a time, of the
Egyptian _Ptolemies_. Both Tyre and Sidon were rebuilt, and
flourished anew. It is probably to the third century B.C. that we
should assign the native Sidonian dynasty which included the Kings
_Eshmunazar I., Sedek-yaton, Tabnit, Bodashtart_, and
_Eshmunazar II._, whose names are known to us from inscriptions.
In the time of the last-named king, the cities Dor and Joppa, with the
plain of Sharon, belonged to Sidon.

CARTHAGINIAN HISTORY.--The most prominent of all the Phoenician
settlements was Carthage. It had remarkable advantages of
situation. Its harbor was sufficient for the anchorage of the largest
vessels, and it had a fertile territory around it. These
circumstances, in conjunction with the energy of its inhabitants,
placed it at the head of the Phoenician colonies. In Carthage, there
was no middle class. There were the rich landholders and merchants,
and the common people. The government was practically an
oligarchy. There were two kings or judges (_Shofetes_), with
little power, and a _council_ or _senate_; possibly a second
council also. But the senate and magistrates were subordinate to an
aristocratic body, the _hundred judges_. The bulk of the citizens
had little more than a nominal influence in public affairs.

ASCENDENCY OF CARTHAGE.-When the Greeks (about 600 B.C.) spread their
colonies, the rivals of the Phoenician settlements, in the west of the
Mediterranean, Carthage was moved to deviate from the policy of the
parent cities, and to make herself the champion, protector, and
mistress of the Phoenician dependencies in all that region. Thus she
became the head of a North-African empire, which asserted its
supremacy against its Greek adversaries in Sicily and Spain, as well
as in Lybia. When Tyre was subjugated by Persia, Carthage was
strengthened by the immigration of many of the best Tyrian
families. As the Tyrian strength waned, the Carthaginian power
increased. _Syracuse_, in Sicily, became the first Greek naval
power, and the foremost antagonist of the Carthaginian dominion. In
480 B.C., Carthage made war upon the Greek cities in Sicily. The
contest was renewed from time to time. In the conflicts between
439-409 B.C., she confirmed her sway over the western half of the
island. In later conflicts (317-275 B.C.), in which _Agathocles_,
tyrant of Syracuse, was a noted leader of the Greeks, and, after his
death, _Pyrrhus_, king of Epirus, was their ally, Carthage
alternately lost and regained her Sicilian cities. But the result of
the war was to establish her maritime ascendency.

LITERATURE.--Works mentioned on pp. 16, 42: Pietschmann,
_Geschichte der Phönizier_ (1889); Rawlinson, _History of
Phoenicia_ (1889); E. Meycr, Art. _Phoenicia_ in the
_Encycl. Bibl._; Perrot & Chipiez, _History of Art in
Phoenicia and Cyprus_, 2 vols.; Renan, _Mission de Phenicie_
(1874); Meltzer, _Geschichte der Karthager_; F. W. Newman's
_Defense of Carthage_.




CHAPTER IV. THE HEBREWS.


PECULIARITY OF THE HEBREWS.--While the rest of the nations worshiped
"gods many and lords many," whom they confounded with the motions of
the heavenly bodies, or with other aspects of nature, there was one
people which attained to a faith in one God, the Creator and Preserver
of the universe, who is exalted above nature, and whom it was deemed
impious to represent by any material image. More than is true of any
other people, religion was consciously the one end and aim of their
being. To bring the true religion to its perfection, and to give it a
world-wide diffusion and sway, was felt by them to be their
heaven-appointed mission. The peculiarity of their faith made them
stand alone, and rendered them exclusive, and intolerant of the
surrounding idolatries. The mountainous character of their land,
separated by Lebanon from Phoenicia, and by the desert from the
nations on the East and South, was well adapted to the work which they
had to fulfill in the course of history.

THE PATRIARCHAL AGE.--The Israelites traced their descent from
_Abraham_, who, to escape the infection of idolatry, left his
home, which was in _Ur_ on the lower Euphrates, and came into the
land of Canaan, where he led a wandering life, but became the father
of a group of nations. According to the popular narrative,
_Isaac_, his son by _Sarah_, was recognized as the next
chief of the family; while _Ishmael_, Abraham's son by
_Hagar_, became the progenitor of the _Arabians_. Of the two
sons of Isaac, _Esau_, who was a huntsman, married a daughter of
the native people: from him sprung the _Edomites_. _Jacob_
kept up the occupation of a herdsman. Of his twelve sons,
_Joseph_ was an object of jealousy to the other eleven, by whom
he was sold to a caravan of merchants on their way to Egypt. There,
through his skill in interpreting dreams, he rose to high dignities
and honors in the court of Pharaoh; and, by his agency, the entire
family were allowed to settle oh the pasture-lands of _Goshen_ in
northern Egypt (p. 40). Here in the neighborhood of _Heliopolis_,
for several centuries, they fed their flocks. From Israel, the name
given to Jacob, they were commonly called _Israelites_. The name
_Hebrews_ was apparently derived from a word signifying "across
the river" (Euphrates); but the original application is quite
uncertain.

THE EXODUS (see p. 41).--The time came when the Israelites were no
longer well treated. A new Egyptian dynasty was on the throne. Their
numbers were an occasion of apprehension. An Egyptian princess saved
_Moses_ from being a victim of a barbarous edict issued against
them. He grew to manhood in Pharaoh's court, but became the champion
of his people. Compelled to flee, he received in the lonely region of
_Mount Sinai_ that sublime disclosure of the only living God
which qualified him to be the leader and deliverer of his brethren. A
"strong east wind," parting the Red Sea, opened a passage for the
Israelites, whom a succession of calamities, inflicted upon their
oppressors by the Almighty, had driven Pharaoh (Menephthah?) to permit
to depart in a body; but the returning waves ingulfed the pursuing
Egyptian army. "The sea covered them: they sank as lead in the mighty
waters." For a long period _Moses_ led the people about in the
wilderness. They were trained by this experience to habits of order
and military discipline. At _Horeb_, the Decalogue, the kernel,
so to speak, of the Hebrew codes, the foundation of the religious and
social life of the people, was given them under circumstances fitted
to awaken the deepest awe. They placed themselves under Jehovah as the
Ruler and Protector of the nation in a special sense. The worship of
other divinities, every form of idolatry, was to be a treasonable
offense. The laws of Jehovah were to be kept in the Ark of the
Covenant, in the "Tabernacle," which was the sanctuary, and was
transported from place to place. The priesthood was devolved on
_Aaron_ and his successors, at the side of whom were their
assistants, the _Levites_. The civil authority in each tribe was
placed in the hands of the patriarchal chief and the "elders," the
right of approval or of veto being left to the whole tribe gathered in
an assembly. The heads of the tribes, with seventy representative
elders, together with Aaron and Moses, formed a supreme council or
standing committee. On particular occasions a congregation of all the
tribes might be summoned. The ritual was made up of sacrifices and
solemn festivals. The _Sabbath_ was the great weekly
commemoration, a day of rest for the slave as well as for the master,
for the toiling beast as well as for man. Every seventh year and every
fiftieth year were sabbaths, when great inequalities of condition,
which might spring up in the intervals, respecting the possession of
land, servitude consequent on debts, etc., were removed.

Hebrew Laws.--The Israelites, in virtue of their covenant with
Jehovah, were to be a holy people, a nation of priests. They were
thus to maintain fraternal equality. There was to be no enslaving of
one another, save that which was voluntary and for a limited
time. Only prisoners not of their race, or purchased foreigners,
could be held as slaves. Every fiftieth year, land was to revert to
its original possessor. In the sabbatical years the land was not to
be tilled. What then grew wild might be gathered by all. There were
careful provisions for the benefit of the poor.

HEADS OF TRIBES.--The progenitors of the tribes, the sons of Jacob, as
given in _Exodus_, were Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar,
Zebulon, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Joseph, and Benjamin.

THE HEBREW RELIGION--Such, in brief, were the beginnings of a religion
as unique as it was elevated in its character,--a religion which stood
from the outset in mortal antagonism to the Egyptian worship of
sun-gods, and to the star-worship, the service of Baal, and of sensual
or savage divinities joined with him,--to that service which was
diffused through the Semitic nations of western Asia. A people was
constituted to be the guardian of this light, kindled in the midst of
the surrounding darkness, to carry it down to later ages, and to make
it finally, in its perfected form, the heritage of mankind.

THE PROPHETS.--_Moses_ was not only a military leader and a
legislator: he stands at the head of the _prophets_, the class of
men who at different times, especially in seasons of national peril and
temptation, along the whole course of Israelitish history, were raised
up to declare the will of Jehovah, to utter the lessons proper to the
hour, to warn evil-doers, and to comfort the desponding.

CONQUEST OF CANAAN: THE ERA OF THE JUDGES.--Moses himself did not
enter "the promised land," where the patriarchs were buried, and which
the Israelites were to conquer. According to Deut. vii. 2, a war of
extermination was commanded. The reason given for the command was that
the people must avoid the contagion of idolatry, that it was the fit
reward of the nation which they were bidden to dispossess.

The word _"Canaanite"_ was used especially to designate the
inhabitants of the coast region of Palestine. It was applied,
however, to all the tribes, who were under thirty-one kings or
chiefs, in the time of Joshua, There were six principal tribes,--the
_Hittites_, _Hivites_, _Amorites_, _Jebusites_,
_Perizzites_, and _Girgashites_. These, with the exception
of the _Hittites_, and possibly the _Amtorites_, were
Semitic in their language. The Canaanites had houses and
vineyards. From them the Israelites learned agriculture. "They were
in possession of fortified towns, treasures of brass, iron, gold,
and foreign merchandise" Their religious rites were brutal and
debasing,--"human sacrifice, licentious orgies, the worship of a
host of divinities."

On the death of Moses, _Joshua_ succeeded to the post of a
leader. He defeated the _Amontes_ and other tribes on the east of
the Jordan. After the first victories of Joshua, each tribe carried on
for itself the struggle with Canaanites, victory over them being often
followed by indiscriminate slaughter. It is plain, however, especially
from the account in the first chapter of the Book of Judges, that
there was a process of assimilation as well as one of conquest. The
actual settlement was effected by peaceful as well as by warlike
methods. Resistance was stubborn, and the progress of occupation
slow. It was not until David's time, centuries after the invasion,
that _Jebus_, the site of Jerusalem, was captured. This delay was
due largely to a lack of union, not to a lack of valor. The strength
of the Israelites was in their infantry. Hence they preferred to fight
upon the hills, rather than to cope with horsemen and chariots on the
plains below.

THE PERIOD OF THE JUDGES.--The era of the Judges extends from about
1300 B.C. over at least two centuries. Powerful tribes--as
_Moabites_, _Midianites_, _Ammonites_,
_Philistines_--were unsubdued. The land was desolated by
constant war. It was one sure sign of the prevailing disorder and
anarchy, that "the highways were unoccupied, and the travelers walked
through byways" (Judg. v. 6). Not unfrequently the people forgot
Jehovah, and fell into idolatrous practices. In this period of
degeneracy and confusion, men full of sacred enthusiasm and of heroic
courage arose to smite the enemies of Israel, and to restore the
observance of the law. Of these heroic leaders, _Deborah_,
_Gideon_, _Jepththa_, and _Samson_ were the most
famous. There remains the song of Deborah on the defeat and death of
_Sisera_ (Judg. v.).

The _Philistines_, on the western coast, captured the sacred
ark,--an act that spread dismay among the Israelites. Then they
pushed on their conquests as far as the Jordan, took away from the
Israelites their weapons, and grievously oppressed them. The
_Ammonites_ threatened the tribes on the east of the Jordan with
a like fate. At this juncture, an effective leader and reformer
appeared, in the person of _Samuel_, who had been consecrated
from his youth up to the service of the sanctuary, and whose devotion
to the law was mingled with an ardent patriotism. He roused the
courage of the people, and recalled them to the service of Jehovah. In
the "schools of the prophets" he taught the young the law, trained
them in music and song, and thus prepared a class of inspiring
teachers and guides to co-operate with the priesthood in upholding the
cause of religion.

THE MONARCHY: SAMUEL AND SAUL.--In the distracted condition of the
country, the people demanded a king, to unite them, and lead them to
victory, and to administer justice. They felt that their lack of
compact organization and defined leadership placed them at a
disadvantage in comparison with the tribes about. This demand
_Samuel_ resisted, as springing out of a distrust of Jehovah, and
as involving a rejection of Him. He depicted the burdens which regal
government would bring upon them. Later history verified his
prediction. A strong, centralized authority was not in harmony with
the family and tribal government which was the peculiarity of their
system. It brought in, by the side of the prophetic order, another
authority less sacred in its claims to respect. Collisions between the
two must inevitably result. But, whatever might be the ideal political
system, the exigency was such that Samuel yielded to the persistent
call of the people. He himself chose and anointed for the office a
tall, brave, and experienced soldier, _Saul_. Successful in
combat, the king soon fell into a conflict with the prophet, by
failing to comply with the divine law, and by sparing, contrary to the
injunction laid upon him, prisoners and cattle that he had
captured. Thereupon Samuel secretly anointed _David_, a young
shepherd of the tribe of Judah; thus designating him for the
throne. The envy of Saul at the achievements of David, and at his
growing popularity, coupled with secret suspicion of what higher
honors might be in store for the valiant youth, embittered the king
against him. David was befriended and shielded by _Jonathan_,
Saul's son, who might naturally be looked upon as his suitable
successor. The memorials of the friendship of these two youths, in the
annals of that troublous time, are like a star in the darkest
night. David was obliged to take refuge among the Philistines, where
he led a band of free lances, whom the Philistines did not trust as
auxiliaries, but who were inured by their daring combats for the
struggles that came afterwards. Saul and Jonathan were slain, Saul by
his own hand. For six years David was king in _Hebron_, over the
tribes of Judah and Benjamin. The other tribes were ruled by Saul's
son, _Ishbaal_ ('Ishbosheth'). At length David was recognized as
king by all the tribes. Saul's family were exterminated.

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