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Woman\'s Institute Library of Cookery, Vol. 1

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WOMAN'S INSTITUTE LIBRARY OF COOKERY

VOLUME ONE

ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY

CEREALS

BREAD

HOT BREADS



WOMAN'S INSTITUTE OF DOMESTIC ARTS AND SCIENCES, Inc.

PREFACE

The Woman's Institute Library of Cookery consists of five volumes that
cover the various phases of the subject of cookery as it is carried on
in the home. These books contain the same text as the Instruction Papers
of the Institute's Course in Cookery arranged so that related subjects
are grouped together. Examination questions pertaining to the subject
matter appear at the end of each section. These questions will prove
helpful in a mastery of the subjects to which they relate, as they are
the same as those on which students of the Institute are required to
report. At the back of each volume is a complete index, which will
assist materially in making quick reference to the subjects contained
in it.

This volume, which is the first of the set, deals with the essentials of
cookery, cereals, bread, and hot breads. In _Essentials of Cookery_,
Parts 1 and 2, are thoroughly treated the selection, buying, and care of
food, as well as other matters that will lead to familiarity with terms
used in cookery and to efficiency in the preparation of food. In
_Cereals_ are discussed the production, composition, selection, and care
and the cooking and serving of cereals of all kinds. In _Bread_ and _Hot
Breads_ are described all the ingredients required for bread, rolls, and
hot breads of every kind, the processes and recipes to be followed in
making and baking them, the procedure in serving them, and the way in
which to care for such foods.

Whenever advisable, utensils for the preparation of food, as well as
labor-saving devices, are described, so as to enable beginners in the
art of cookery to become acquainted with them quickly. In addition, this
volume contains breakfast, luncheon, and dinner menus that will enable
the housewife to put into practical, every-day use many of the
recipes given.

It is our hope that these volumes will help the housewife to acquire the
knowledge needed to prepare daily meals that will contain the proper
sustenance for each member of her family, teach her how to buy her food
judiciously and prepare and serve it economically and appetizingly, and
also instil in her such a liking for cookery that she will become
enthusiastic about mastering and dignifying this womanly art.



CONTENTS

ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY
The Problem of Food
Selection of Food
Food Substances
Food Value
Digestion and Absorption of Food
Preparation of Food
Methods of Cooking
Heat for Cooking
Utensils for Cooking
Preparing Foods for Cooking
Order of Work
Table for Cooking Foods
Care of Food
Menus and Recipes
Terms Used in Cookery

CEREALS
Production, Composition, and Selection
Cereals as a Food
Preparation of Cereals for the Table
Indian Corn, or Maize
Wheat
Rice
Oats
Barley
Rye, Buckwheat, and Millet
Prepared, or Ready-to-Eat, Cereals
Serving Cereals
Italian Pastes
Breakfast Menu

BREAD
Importance of Bread as Food
Ingredients for Bread Making
Utensils for Bread Making
Bread-Making Processes
Making the Dough
Care of the Rising Dough
Kneading the Dough
Shaping the Dough Into Loaves
Baking the Bread
Scoring Bread
Use of the Bread Mixer
Serving Bread
Bread Recipes
Recipes for Rolls, Buns, and Biscuits
Toast
Left-Over Bread

HOT BREADS
Hot Breads in the Diet
Principal Requirements for Hot Breads
Leavening Agents
Hot-Bread Utensils and Their Use
Preparing the Hot-Bread Mixture
Baking the Hot-Bread Mixture
Serving Hot Breads
Popover Recipes
Griddle-Cake Recipes
Waffle Recipes
Muffin Recipes
Corn-Cake Recipes
Biscuit Recipes
Miscellaneous Hot-Bread Recipes
Utilising Left-Over Hot Breads
Luncheon Menu

INDEX

* * * * *



ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 1)

THE PROBLEM OF FOOD

1. Without doubt, the greatest problem confronting the human race is
that of food. In order to exist, every person must eat; but eating
simply to keep life in the body is not enough. Aside from this, the body
must be supplied with an ample amount of energy to carry on each day's
work, as well as with the material needed for its growth, repair, and
working power. To meet these requirements of the human body, there is
nothing to take the place of _food_, not merely any kind, however, but
the _right_ kind. Indeed, so important is the right kind of food in the
scheme of life that the child deprived of it neither grows nor increases
in weight, and the adult who is unable to secure enough of it for
adequate nourishment is deficient in nerve force and working power. If a
person is to get the best out of life, the food taken into the body must
possess real sustaining power and supply the tissues with the necessary
building material; and this truth points out that there are facts and
principles that must be known in order that the proper selection of food
may be made, that it may be so prepared as to increase its value, and
that economy in its selection, preparation, use, and care may be
exercised.

2. Probably the most important of these principles is the _cooking of
food_. While this refers especially to the preparation of food by
subjecting edible materials to the action of heat, it involves much
more. The cooking of food is a science as well as an art, and it depends
for its success on known and established principles. In its full sense,
_cookery_ means not only the ability to follow a recipe, thereby
producing a successfully cooked dish, but also the ability to select
materials, a knowledge of the ways in which to prepare them, an
understanding of their value for the persons for whom they are prepared,
and ingenuity in serving foods attractively and in making the best use
of food that may be left over from the previous meals, so that there
will be practically no waste. Thus, while cookery in all its phases is a
broad subject, it is one that truly belongs to woman, not only because
of the pleasure she derives in preparing food for the members of her
family, but because she is particularly qualified to carry on the work.

3. The providing of food in the home is a matter that usually falls to
the lot of the housewife; in fact, on her depends the wise use of the
family income. This means, then, that whether a woman is earning her own
livelihood and has only herself to provide for, or whether she is
spending a part of some other person's income, as, for instance, her
father's or her husband's, she should understand how to proportion her
money so as to provide the essential needs, namely, food, clothing, and
shelter. In considering the question of providing food, the housewife
should set about to determine what three meals a day will cost, and in
this matter she should be guided by the thought that the meals must be
the best that can possibly be purchased for the amount of money allowed
for food from the family income and that their cost must not exceed the
allotment. To a great extent she can control the cost of her foods by
selecting them with care and then making good use of what her money has
bought. It is only by constant thought and careful planning, however,
that she will be able to keep within her means, and she will find that
her greatest assistance lies in studying foods and the ways in which to
prepare them.

4. A factor that should not be disregarded in the problem of food is
_waste_, and so that the housewife can cope with it properly she should
understand the distinction between waste and refuse. These terms are
thought by some to mean the same thing and are often confused; but there
is a decided difference between them. _Waste_, as applied to food, is
something that could be used but is not, whereas _refuse_ is something
that is rejected because it is unfit for use. For example, the fat of
meat, which is often eaten, is waste if it is thrown away, but potato
parings, which are not suitable as food, are refuse.

In connection with the problem of waste, it may be well to know that
leakage in the household is due to three causes. The first one is lack
of knowledge on the part of the housekeeper as to the difference between
waste and refuse and a consequent failure to market well. As an
illustration, many housewives will reject turkey at a certain price a
pound as being too expensive and, instead, will buy chicken at, say, 5
cents a pound less. In reality, chicken at 5 cents a pound less than the
price of turkey is more expensive, because turkey, whose proportion of
meat to bone is greater than that of chicken, furnishes more edible
material; therefore, in buying chicken, they pay more for refuse in
proportion to good material. The second cause for this leakage in the
household is excessive waste in the preparation of food for the table,
arising from the selection of the wrong cooking method or the lack of
skill in cooking; and the third cause is the serving of too large
quantities and a consequent waste of food left on individual plates and
unfit for any other use in the home.

5. Another matter that constantly confronts the housewife is what foods
she shall select for each day's meals. To be successful, all meals
should be planned with the idea of making them wholesome and appetizing,
giving them variety, and using the left-overs. Every woman should
understand that food is cooked for both hygienic and esthetic reasons;
that is, it must be made safe and wholesome for health's sake and must
satisfy the appetite, which to a considerable degree is mental and, of
course, is influenced by the appearance of the food. When the housewife
knows how to cook ordinary foods well, she has an excellent foundation
from which to obtain variety in the _diet_--by which in these lessons is
meant the daily food and drink of any individual, and not something
prescribed by a physician for a person who is ill--for then it is simply
a matter of putting a little careful thought into the work she is doing
in order to get ideas of new ways in which to prepare these same foods
and of utilizing foodstuffs she has on hand. However, ample time must
always be allowed for the preparation of meals, for no one can expect to
produce tasty meals by rushing into the kitchen just before meal time
and getting up the easiest thing in the quickest manner. Well-planned
meals carefully prepared will stimulate interest in the next day's bill
of fare and will prove extremely beneficial to all concerned.

6. In the practice of cookery it is also important that the meals be
planned and the cooking done for the sake of building the human body
and caring for it. As soon as any woman realizes that both the present
and the future welfare of the persons for whom she is providing foods
depend on so many things that are included in cookery, her interest in
this branch of domestic science will increase; and in making a study of
it she may rest assured that there is possibly no other calling that
affords a more constant source of enjoyment and a better opportunity for
acquiring knowledge, displaying skill, and helping others to be well
and happy.

The fact that people constantly desire something new and different in
the way of food offers the housewife a chance to develop her ingenuity
along this line. Then, too, each season brings with it special foods for
enjoyment and nourishment, and there is constant satisfaction in
providing the family with some surprise in the form of a dish to which
they are unaccustomed, or an old one prepared in a new or a better way.
But the pleasure need not be one-sided, for the adding of some new touch
to each meal will give as much delight to the one who prepares the food
as to those who partake of it. When cookery is thought of in this way,
it is really a creative art and has for its object something more than
the making of a single dish or the planning of a single meal.

7. From what has been pointed out, it will readily be seen that a
correct knowledge of cookery and all that it implies is of extreme
importance to those who must prepare food for others; indeed, it is for
just such persons--the housewife who must solve cookery problems from
day to day, as well as girls and women who must prepare themselves to
perform the duties with which they will be confronted when they take up
the management of a household and its affairs--that these lessons in
cookery are intended.

In the beginning of this course of study in cookery it is deemed
advisable to call attention to the order in which the subject matter is
presented. As will be seen before much progress is made, the lessons are
arranged progressively; that is, the instruction begins with the
essentials, or important fundamentals, of food--its selection,
preparation, and care--and, from these as a foundation, advances step by
step into the more complicated matters and minor details. The beginner
eager to take up the actual work of cookery may feel that too much
attention is given to preliminaries. However, these are extremely
essential, for they are the groundwork on which the actual cooking of
food depends; indeed, without a knowledge of them, very little
concerning cookery in its various phases could be readily comprehended.

8. Each beginner in cookery is therefore urged to master every lesson in
the order in which she receives it and to carry out diligently every
detail. No lesson should be disregarded as soon as it is understood, for
the instruction given in it bears a close relation to the entire subject
and should be continually put into practice as progress is made. This
thought applies with particular emphasis to the Sections relating to the
essentials of cookery. These should be used in connection with all other
Sections as books of reference and an aid in calling to mind points that
must eventually become a part of a woman's cookery knowledge. By
carrying on her studies systematically and following directions
carefully, the beginner will find the cooking of foods a simple matter
and will take delight in putting into practice the many things that
she learns.

* * * * *

SELECTION OF FOOD

MATTERS INVOLVED IN RIGHT SELECTION

9. Each one of the phases of cookery has its importance, but if success
is to be achieved in this art, careful attention must be given to the
selection of what is to be cooked, so as to determine its value and
suitability. To insure the best selection, therefore, the housewife
should decide whether the food material she purchases will fit the needs
of the persons who are to eat it; whether the amount of labor involved
in the preparation will be too great in proportion to the results
obtained; whether the loss in preparation, that is, the proportion of
refuse to edible matter, will be sufficient to affect the cost
materially; what the approximate loss in cooking will be; whether the
food will serve to the best advantage after it is cooked; and, finally,
whether or not all who are to eat it will like it. The market price also
is a factor that cannot be disregarded, for, as has been explained, it
is important to keep within the limits of the amount that may be spent
and at the same time provide the right kind of nourishment for each
member of the family.

10. In order to select food material that will meet the requirements
just set forth, three important matters must be considered; namely, the
_substances_ of which it is composed; its measure of energy-producing
material, or what is called its _food_, or _fuel, value_; and its
_digestion_ and _absorption_. Until these are understood, the actual
cost of any article of food cannot be properly determined, although its
price at all times may be known.

However, before a study of any of these matters is entered into, it is
necessary to know just what is meant by food and what food does for the
body. As is well understood, the body requires material by which it may
be built and its tissues repaired when they are torn down by work and
exercise. In addition it requires a supply of heat to maintain it at
normal temperature and provide it with sufficient energy to do the work
required of it. The material that will accomplish these important things
is food, which may therefore be regarded as anything that, when taken
into the body, will build and repair its tissues or will furnish it with
the energy required to do its work.


FOOD SUBSTANCES

11. Although, as has just been stated, food may be considered as
anything that the human engine can make over into tissue or use in
living and working, not all foods are equally desirable any more than
all materials are equally good in the construction of a steam engine and
in the production of its working power. Those food substances which are
the most wholesome and healthful are the ones to be chosen, but proper
choice cannot be made unless the buyer knows of what the particular food
consists and what it is expected to do. To aid in the selection of food,
therefore, it is extremely necessary to become familiar with the five
substances, constituents, or principles of which foods are made up;
namely, water, mineral matter, or ash, protein, fat, and carbohydrate. A
knowledge of these will help also in determining the cooking methods to
adopt, for this depends on the effect that heat has on the various
substances present in a food. Of course, so far as flavor is concerned,
it is possible for the experienced cook to prepare many dishes
successfully without knowing the effect of heat on the different food
constituents; but to cook intelligently, with that success which makes
for actual economy and digestibility, certain facts must be known
concerning the food principles and the effect of dry and moist heat
on foods.

12. Water.--Of the various constituents that are found in the human
body, water occurs in the largest quantity. As a food substance, it is
an extremely important feature of a person's diet. Its chief purpose is
to replenish the liquids of the body and to assist in the digestion of
food. Although nature provides considerable amounts of water in most
foods, large quantities must be taken in the diet as a beverage. In
fact, it is the need of the body for water that has led to the
development of numerous beverages. Besides being necessary in building
up the body and keeping it in a healthy condition, water has a special
function to perform in cooking, as is explained later. Although this
food substance is extremely essential to life, it is seldom considered
in the selection of food, because, as has just been mentioned, nearly
all foods contain water.

13. Mineral Matter.--Ranking next to water in the quantity contained in
the human body is mineral matter. This constituent, which is also called
_ash_ or _mineral salts_, forms the main part of the body's framework,
or skeleton. In the building and maintaining of the body, mineral salts
serve three purposes--to give rigidity and permanence to the skeleton,
to form an essential element of active tissue, and to provide the
required alkalinity or acidity for the digestive juices and other
secretions.

The origin and distribution of these mineral substances are of interest.
Plants in their growth seize from the earth the salts of minerals and
combine them with other substances that make up their living tissue.
Then human beings, as well as other living creatures, get their supply
of these needed salts from the plants that they take as food, this being
the only form in which the salts can be thoroughly assimilated. These
salts are not affected by cooking unless some process is used that
removes such of them as are readily soluble in water. When this occurs,
the result is usually waste, as, for instance, where no use is made of
the water in which some vegetables are boiled. As is true of water,
mineral matter, even though it is found in large quantities in the body,
is usually disregarded when food is purchased. This is due to the fact
that this important nutritive material appears in some form in nearly
all foods and therefore does not necessitate the housewife's stopping to
question its presence.

14. Protein.--The food substance known as protein is a very important
factor in the growth and repair of the body; in fact, these processes
cannot be carried on unless protein is present in the diet. However,
while a certain quantity of protein is essential, the amount is not very
large and more than is required is likely to be harmful, or, since the
body can make no use of it, to be at least waste material. The principal
sources of protein are lean meat, eggs, milk, certain grains, nuts, and
the legumes, which include such foods as beans and peas. Because of the
ease with which they are digested, meat, fish, eggs, and milk are more
valuable sources of protein than bread, beans, and nuts. However, as the
foods that are most valuable for proteins cost more than others, a mixed
diet is necessary if only a limited amount of money with which to
purchase foods is available.

15. So much is involved in the cooking of foods containing protein that
the effect of heat on such foods should be thoroughly understood. The
cooking of any food, as is generally understood, tends to break up the
food and prepare it for digestion. However, foods have certain
characteristics, such as their structure and texture, that influence
their digestibility, and the method of cooking used or the degree to
which the cooking is carried so affects these characteristics as to
increase or decrease the digestibility of the food. In the case of foods
containing protein, unless the cooking is properly done, the application
of heat is liable to make the protein indigestible, for the heat first
coagulates this substance--that is, causes it to become thick--and
then, as the heat increases, shrinks and hardens it. This fact is
clearly demonstrated in the cooking of an egg, the white of which is the
type of protein called _albumin_. In a raw egg, the albumin is nearly
liquid, but as heat is applied, it gradually coagulates until it becomes
solid. If the egg is cooked too fast or too long, it toughens and
shrinks and becomes less palatable, less attractive, and less
digestible. However, if the egg is properly cooked after the heat has
coagulated the albumin, the white will remain tender and the yolk will
be fine and mealy in texture, thus rendering it digestible.

Similar results, although not so evident to the sight, are brought about
through the right or wrong way of cooking practically all other foods
that contain much protein. Milk, whose principal ingredient is a protein
known as _casein_, familiar as the curd of cheese, illustrates this fact
very plainly. When it is used to make cottage cheese, heating it too
long or to too high a degree will toughen the curd and actually spoil
the texture of the product, which will be grainy and hard, instead of
smooth and tender.

16. FATS.--The food substances just discussed--water, mineral matter,
and protein--yield the materials required for building and repairing the
tissues of the body, but, as has been explained, the body also requires
foods that produce energy, or working power. By far the greater part of
the total solids of food taken into the body serve this purpose, and of
these fats form a large percentage. Although fats make up such a large
proportion of the daily food supply, they enter into the body
composition to a less extent than do the food substances that have been
explained. The fats commonly used for food are of both animal and
vegetable origin, such as lard, suet, butter, cream, olive oil, nut oil,
and cottonseed oil. The ordinary cooking temperatures have comparatively
little effect on fat, except to melt it if it is solid. The higher
temperatures decompose at least some of it, and thus liberate substances
that may be irritating to the digestive tract.

17. CARBOHYDRATES.--Like fats, the food substances included in the term
carbohydrates supply the body with energy. However, fats and
carbohydrates differ in the forms in which they supply energy, the
former producing it in the most concentrated form and the latter in the
most economical form.

So that the term _carbohydrate_ may be clearly understood and firmly
fixed in the mind, it is deemed advisable to discuss briefly the
composition of the body and the food that enters it. Of course, in a
lesson on cookery, not so much attention need be given to this matter as
in a lesson on _dietetics_, which is a branch of hygiene that treats of
diet; nevertheless, it is important that every person who prepares food
for the table be familiar with the fact that the body, as well as food,
is made up of a certain number of chemical elements, of which nitrogen,
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen form a large part. Protein owes its
importance to the fact that of the various food substances it alone
contains the element nitrogen, which is absolutely essential to the
formation of any plant or animal tissue. The other three elements,
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, go to make up the carbohydrates; in fact,
it is from the names of these three elements that the term carbohydrate
is derived. The carbohydrates include the starches and sugars that are
used and eaten in so many forms, and these contain the three elements
mentioned, the hydrogen and oxygen contained in them being in the
proportion that produces water. Thus, as will readily be seen, by
separating the name into its parts--_carbo_ (carbon) and _hydrate_
(hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion of two parts of hydrogen and one
of oxygen, that is, in the form of water)--carbohydrate is simply carbon
united with water. While the facts just brought out have much to do with
food economy, they are of interest here chiefly because they help to
make clear the term carbohydrate, which, as will be admitted, is the
only correct name for the food substance it represents.

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